




'W 







?vT* A 



.*> ,. fc .. 



'bV" 



K°. \^ :&&'* V** .vJsS&i-. %.«.^ .•£&•. ^ 






• JE «$St^* J . o 4* + 






v^V %-w?#> v-^y v*^ 



*n 




Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/syllabusofcourseOOstep 



BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 



A HISTORY OF THE FRENCH REVOLU- 
TION. Vol. I., 1789-91; Vol. II., 1791-93 
(New York: Charles Scribner's Sons). 

THE PRINCIPAL SPEECHES OF THE 
STATESMEN AND ORATORS OF THE 
FRENCH REVOLUTION, 1789-1795. Edi- 
ted with Introduction, Notes and Indices. 
2 Vols. (Oxford: Clarendon Press; New 
York: The Macmillan Company). 

EUROPEAN HISTORY, 1789-1815 (Periods 
of European History Series ; New York : The 
Macmillan Company), 

HISTORY OF PORTUGAL (Story of the Na- 
tions Series ; New York : G. P. Putnam's 
Sons). 

ALBUQUERQUE AND THE EARLY POR- 
TUGUESE SETTLEMENTS IN INDIA 
(Rulers of India Series. Oxford: Clarendon 
Press ; New York : The Macmillan Company). 



SYLLABUS 



OF A 



Course of Eighty-Seven Lectures 

ON 

Modern European History 

(1600-1890) 



H. MORSE STEPHENS 

Professor of Modem European History in Cornell University. 



NEW YORK 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1899 















Copyright, 1899 
By H. Morse Stephens. 



id 







FIRST COPY, 



act, N^* • 



Press of 

The new Era printing Company 

Lancaster. Pa. 



5r 

* PREFACE. 



This volume is the second, revised and enlarged edition, of a syllabus 
of lectures on modern European history, which has been used in Cor- 
nell University during the past five years. It is published in book 
form at the request of former pupils and of other teachers of history in 
colleges and universities. 

The problem of teaching history is complicated with regard to modern 
European history by certain special considerations. Whatever may be 
said for or against the lecture method as opposed to the holding of reci- 
tations on a text-book, either with classes of young students or in such 
subjects as English or American history, in which the subject-matter is 
more easily made intelligible, there can be no doubt of the expediency 
of the lecture method in teaching modern European history to classes 
in colleges and universities. The complexity of the subject, the im- 
possibility, arising from this very complexity, of providing an adequate 
text-book, the strangeness of the proper names, and the confusion of 
the historical perspective, owing to the absence of any particular cen- 
tralizing institution or motive, contribute to make teaching through 
lectures the accepted method of instruction in modern European history. 
The best that can be done is, in each successive lecture, to fix the at- 
tention of the class upon some of the changing phases of the subject, 
and to indicate where and how fuller information can be obtained. 

This may be done by lecturing upon topics already studied by the 
class in an approved text-book, which is also brought into the lec- 
ture room, but there are certain special advantages in the use of a sylla- 
bus. The practical assistance in the taking of notes may be counted as 
the chief of these advantages. It is hardly practicable for listeners to a 
lecture to use the actual pages of the text-book as a guide in taking 
notes. There is an inevitable difficulty in apprehending and inserting 
the additional matter introduced by the lecturer in his treatment of the 
subject. The literary form of the text-book and the diffusion of matter 
over a number of pages also distract attention from the words of the 
lecturer. There is next to be noted the question of dates. Unless the 



iv Preface. 

more important dates to be given in the lecture are conspicuously writ- 
ten upon the blackboard or previously extracted from the pages of the 
text-book, it is almost impossible for the members of the class to get 
them correctly, however often they may be repeated. Still more diffi- 
cult is it to take down correctly in notes proper names of unusual diffi- 
culty in foreign languages. The pronunciation seldom indicates the 
right spelling, and when in the course of a lecture French, German, 
Italian, Polish and Russian proper names all have to be mentioned, it 
is too much to expect that they can be correctly heard or rendered. 

A syllabus containing the skeleton of a lecture, and giving the bare 
facts in the order in which they are to be treated, with the dates and 
proper names to be mentioned, is of positive value before, during, and 
after the lecture hour. . In the first place, it is possible for the students, 
by looking through the syllabus of the lecture they are about to attend, 
to note the arrangement of the subject and to get a general idea of the 
manner in which it is to be handled. During the lecture hour, they 
have before them the skeleton of the facts which it is the teacher's busi- 
ness to develop and illustrate. They can take their notes either upon 
pages interleaved in the syllabus itself, or in a note-book with references 
to the corresponding pages and paragraphs. They are not distracted 
by the effort to catch dates correctly, or to spell unfamiliar words in 
foreign languages. After the lecture it is possible to review their 
knowledge of the subject with the certainty that they have correctly 
before them all the main facts, which have been narrated and made the 
subject of comment. 

It is not, of course, to be asserted that the use of a syllabus necessa- 
rily dispenses with the use of a text-book. On the contrary, it presup- 
poses either the use of a textbook or a considerable amount of supple- 
mentary reading. It is advisable for the lecturer, when entering upon 
a new topic to review briefly the secondary and primary authorities deal- 
ing with it, and it is hoped that the bibliographies affixed to each 
lecture in the present Syllabus may be of use in this respect. Every 
teacher of history has his own preferences with regard to text-books, 
and some may choose, like the compiler of this Syllabus, to refer his 
students directly to brief secondary authorities rather than to any one 
particular text-book. It need hardly be added that during the lecture 



Preface. v 

hour the syllabus should always be supplemented by a good historical 
atlas, such as Putzger's Historischer Sc/nd-Atlas, and that large wall 
maps, such as MacCoun's, are indispensable for purposes of illustration. 
It is always well to prefix to a course of lectures on modern European 
history a general sketch of the historical geography of Europe. 

Some points with regard to the Syllabus now published need special 
explanation. 

First, the number of lectures has been decided by the consideration 
that eighty-seven lectures allow for three lectures a week for twenty- 
nine weeks, which is as much time as can be given during the college 
year to a single introductory course in modern European history. 
Where a greater number of lectures can be given or a longer period 
than one year it is possible to devote more than an hour to a single lec- 
ture topic. Where the number of lectures proves too great, the difficulty 
may be met by beginning the course at some date later than 1600, such 
as 1648 or 1715, or by stopping at some earlier date, such as 1815 or 
1848. A course of lectures may also be given upon any one of the 
three centuries. Differences of opinion with regard to proportion and 
to perspective in modern European history necessarily exist. The ar- 
rangement adopted would need too long a defense to be entered upon 
in a brief preface, but it may be stated that it has stood the test of five 
years' experience. Other teachers might prefer to begin earlier or later, 
or might prefer to devote more time to the period of the French Revolu- 
tion and of Napoleon, but the conditions in Cornell University make it 
expedient to begin this course with the Seventeenth Century ; while the 
compiler gives, in alternate years, special advanced courses on the pe- 
riod of the French Revolution and on the Napoleonic Era. The sylla- 
buses of certain lectures, as for instance those upon the War of the Aus- 
trian Succession and upon the Seven Years' War, are excessively long, 
and need more than one hour's discourse, but the advantage of compre- 
hending each topic as a whole has seemed to outweigh the disadvantage 
of the exceeding length of an occasional syllabus. It will be noted that 
the length of the syllabuses increases as they progress ; this is partly 
due to the greater complex^ of the later period, owing to the larger 
number of important political factors, and partly due to the fact that 
students as they get accustomed to the subject and to the use of the 



vi Preface. 

Syllabus can handle a greater quantity of material. A knowledge of 
English and American history is presupposed and therefore events in 
the internal history of England and the United States are not touched 
upon. 

It will be observed that the side of modern European history treated 
in this Syllabus is the political. The primary object is the study of the 
international relations of the different states of Europe from the begin- 
ning of the Seventeenth Century to the present time. The internal de- 
velopment of each state is only touched upon or summarized at intervals, 
as when a new principle of national government comes into existence 
and works its way through Europe, such as that expressed in the sys- 
tem and ideas of the monarchy of Eouis XIV., and of the enlightened 
despotism, and in the movement for popular government which fol- 
lowed the French Revolution. No attempt is made in these lectures to 
deal with the history of European civilization or ' ' Kulturgeschichte, ' ' 
although political history, when adequately treated, affords many 
opportunities for dwelling upon the general history of human pro- 
gress. It has been found of advantage, however, to pause occasion- 
ally in the political narrative, in order to touch in the briefest possible 
manner upon the history of literature, philosophy, art and science. 
Six lectures in three groups are interpolated upon these subjects at ap- 
propriate dates. The syllabuses of these six lectures are on a different 
plan from those on political history, and are intended to bring out the 
great contemporary movements of thought and art, through the names 
of the leading masters, rather than to attempt an exhaustive treatment. 
It is important to know in what period of European political history 
Moliere wrote, or Rembrandt painted, or Beethoven composed his sym- 
phonies, even if it is not possible to dwell upon their achievements in 
their own special lines of work. 

Since one of the chief uses of a syllabus of lectures on modern Euro- 
pean history is to keep before the students' eyes the dates of important 
facts, not so much to impress them upon the memory as to make clear 
the chronological sequence of events, the greatest care has been used to 
give correct dates ; but it is inevitable that in such a mass of dates as is 
contained in this Syllabus, mistakes must have been committed, or 
passed over in the process of printing. In every case the Gregorian date 



Preface. vii 

is given and this causes an apparent discrepancy with the dates given 
in many primary and secondary authorities. It is devoutly to be 
wished that modern historians would always convert dates in the his- 
tory of Protestant countries, until they adopted the "new style", and 
of Russia and other countries under the Greek Church, into the Gre- 
gorian dates. It may be noted here that, although the Gregorian cal- 
endar was accepted in all Roman Catholic countries and in the provinces 
of Holland and Zealand by 1587, it was not adopted in the Protes- 
tant states of the Empire, the remainder of the Protestant Netherlands, 
and Denmark until 1700, in the Protestant cantons of Switzerland until 
1701, in Great Britain until 1752, and in Sweden until 1753, and that 
it has not yet been adopted in Russia, Greece and the Balkan States. 
This Syllabus contains not only a mass of dates, but also, as has been 
already explained, a mass of proper names, and a few words must be 
said as to the system of spelling adopted. With regard to the names 
of individuals, the Anglicized forms of Christian names have been used 
wherever possible. Thus, Charles, Henry and John have been used in 
the place of their French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, 
Swedish and Danish equivalents. An apparent exception is made in 
case of Louis, which is now so far accepted in English as to have super- 
seded the older spelling of Lewis. With regard to surnames, the spell- 
ing of the country of origin has been adopted, except in such cases as 
that of Mazarin, in which it would be pedantic to continue the original 
spelling of Mazarini. A far greater problem is presented by the spell- 
ing of names in Russian and other Slavonic languages. It has been 
thought better to adopt the Anglicized forms of such Christian names 
as Peter, Alexander and Nicholas ; but Ivan, Feodor and Vasili, in ac- 
cordance with the best modern usage, have been retained in spite of the 
temptation to change them into John, Theodore and Basil. Slavonic 
surnames have been transliterated directly into English upon the prin- 
ciples already adopted in the author's Europe, 1 789-1815, and more 
fully explained in Mr. J. B. Landfield's article in the American Histor- 
ical Review, vol. 2, pp. 766-768, This is the only rational method of 
spelling Slavonic proper names, since neither the French nor the 
German transliterations indicate the correct pronunciation in English. 
Muhammadan names are spelled according to the Hunterian standard, 
which has been adopted by the British Government of India. 



viii Preface. 

With regard to the spelling of names of places, the rule adopted has 
been to use the English spelling wherever an English spelling has been 
established. No one will contest the correctness of using Florence, 
Lyons and Vienna for Firenze, Lyon and Wien, nor the adoption of an 
English usage wherever it can be found, as in the case of Strasburg, 
Basle and Ratisbon. Where the name of the place has both a French 
and a German form, as in the Rhenish provinces, it has been thought 
better to retain the French form of spelling, since Cologne for Koln, 
Treves for Trier, Mayence for Mainz, Munich for Miinchen, Nimeguen 
for Nymwegen, and some others are not only the French forms, but have 
also been practically adopted into English. It would be absurd to speak 
of the Treaty of Aachen, when the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle is the 
recognized designation in every English document and book. For all 
places of minor importance, except Blenheim, the local spelling has 
been retained. A new departure has been made in rejecting the forms 
Roumania and Rumania, which are based upon French and German 
spellings, and using the correct form Romania. 

The appended tables of rulers and ministers have been found of prac- 
tical value in teaching, by the opportunity afforded of seeing at a glance 
the names of contemporary rulers. The number of genealogical appen- 
dices might have been greatly increased, but the three given explain the 
three most confusing genealogical puzzles of modern European history. 

It is most essential, if the study of modern European history is to be 
of greater value than to provide a mere skeleton knowledge, that every 
student should be required during his undergraduate course to work 
out particular problems for himself and to familiarize himself with some 
field of historical literature. It has been the custom in Cornell Univer- 
sity, during the past five years, to demand each term of every student 
an essay, which shall not be a mere paraphrase of hastily read books, 
but an exercise in using historical materials. Out of the need for pro- 
viding authorities for these essay subjects arose the compilation of the 
bibliographies subjoined to the syllabus of each lecture. These bibli- 
ographies do not pretend to be complete, and they necessarily show, by 
their greater fullness on some subjects than on others, the bias of the 
compiler's own studies. An honest attempt has been made, however, 
to give the names of books generally recognized as secondary authori- 



Preface. ix 

ties, with a list of the chief primary authorities, and occasionally refer- 
ence is made to some small book in English for a brief summary. Most of 
these bibliographies mention only books, which should be in every good 
college library, and it is hoped that they may be serviceable on this 
account to teachers of history, who desire to know to what books to 
refer their students. Much assistance has been derived in revising the 
bibliographies for the second edition of this Syllabus from the excellent 
bibliographies contained in I^avisse and Rambaud's Histoire generale . 
A list of some of the most useful historical bibliographies, collections 
of primary authorities, general histories, and other works of a general 
character, is appended to this preface. 

It remains to be said that the first edition of this Syllabus has been 
used for the past five years in Cornell University with a class consisting 
chiefly of juniors, who have already had courses in Mediaeval and Eng- 
lish history, and that it has been found to give a fair basis on which to 
found more detailed courses for seniors, as well as to afford some pre- 
liminary training, both in historical perspective and in the use of his- 
torical materials. The thanks of the compiler are especially due, and 
are hereby given, to Mr. G. M. Dutcher, A.B., of Cornell University, to 
whose painstaking care this revised edition owes its superior accuracy 
over its predecessor. 

H. MORSE STEPHENS. 

Corneix University, 

ithaca, n. y. 

July, 1899. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Page. 

General Bibliography xv 

LECTURES. 

1. Introductory : Europe in 1600, 1 

2. The Policy of Henry IV. of France 2 

3. The Thirty Years' War : To the Death of Gustavus Adolphus and 

of Wallenstein, 4 

4. The Policy of Richelieu, 7 

5. The Thirty Years' War : From 1634 to 1648, 9 

6. The Treaties of Westphalia, 11 

7. The Fronde, and the Treaty of the Pyrenees, 14 

8. Europe in the Middle of the 17th Century : 1. France, 17 

9. Europe in the Middle of the 17th Century : 2. The Empire, the 

House of Austria, and the German Princes, 19 

10. Europe in the Middle of the 17th Century : 3. The Netherlands, . 22 

11. Europe in the Middle of the 17th Century : 4. Sweden and Den- 

mark, 25 

12. Europe in the Middle of the 17th Century : 5. Russia and Poland, 28 

13. Europe in the Middle of the 17th Century : 6. The Ottoman Turks, 30 

14. Europe in the Middle of the 17th Century : 7. Italy, 33 

15. Europe in the Middle of the 17th Century : 8. Spain and Portugal, 36 

16. France under Louis XIV. and Colbert : To the Revocation of the 

Edict of Nantes, 1685, 38 

17. The Foreign Policy of Louis XIV. : To the Treaties of Nimeguen, 

1678, 41 

18. Frederick William, the Great Elector, 45 

19. The Foreign Policy of Louis XIV. : To the Treaties of Ryswick, 

1697, • • 47 

20. The Siege of Vienna by the Turks, 1683 : Poland under John So- 

bieski, 51 

21. Russia under Peter the Great, 54 

22. Charles XII. of Sweden, 56 

23. The Spanish Succession, . , 59 

24. The War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-14, 61 

25. The Treaties of Utrecht, 65 

26. Germany to 1715, 67 



xii Table of Co?itents. 

27. The Southern Countries of Europe to 1715, 73 

28. The Papacy in the 17th Century : The Jesuits and the Jansenists, . 76 

29. The Last Years of the Reign of Louis XIV., 79 

30. Literature and Philosophy in the 17th Century, 82 

31. Art and Science in the 17th Century, 84 

32. The Regency of Orleans, and the Schemes of Alberoni, 86 

33. The End of the Northern War, . . . : 89 

34. The Policy of the Emperor Charles VI., 91 

35. The War of the Polish Succession, 93 

36. Frederick William I. of Prussia, and the Tsaritsa Anne of 

Russia, 96 

37. The War of the Austrian Succession, 99 

38. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, and the Austro-French Alliance, . 105 

39. The Seven Years' War, 108 

40. France under Louis XV., 112 

41. The Suppression of the Jesuits, • 115 

42. The First Partition of Poland, 118 

43. The War of American Independence, 122 

44. France under Louis XVI., 124 

45. Prussia under Frederick the Great, 127 

46. Russia under Catherine the Great, 131 

47. The Emperor Joseph II., . 135 

48. The Northern Countries of Europe to 1789, 139 

49. The Southern Countries of Europe to 1789, 144 

50. Germany to 1789, 149 

51. The Enlightened Despots, 153 

52. Literature and Philosophy in the 18th Century, , 156 

53. Art and Science in the 18th Century, 158 

54. The French Revolution, 162 

55. The Belgian Revolution, and the Policy of the Emperor Leopold II., 165 
, 56. The War of the French Republic against Europe 169 

57. The Second and Third Partitions of Poland, 173 

58. The Treaties of Basle, 176 

59. The French Directory, and the First Victories of Bonaparte, . . . 179 

60. The Second Coalition against the French Republic, 184 

61. The Treaties of Luneville and of Amiens, . 187 

62. The Consulate in France, and the Re-constitution of Germany, . 190 

63. The Power of Napoleon at its Height, \ 193 

64. Europe during the Ascendency of Napoleon, 197 

65. The Overthrow of the Power of Napoleon, 201 

66. The Congress of Vienna, . . 205 

67. The Holy Alliance 209 



Table of Co?i tents. xiii 

68. The Eastern Question : The Independence of Greece, 213 

69. The Revolution of 1830 in France, 217 

70. The Belgian Insurrection, 220 

71. Insurrection and Civil War in Spain and Portugal, 223 

72. Europe during the Reign of Louis Philippe, 226 

73. The Revolution of 1848 in France, 231 

74. The Revolution of 1848 in Italy, 235 

75. The Revolution of 1848 in Austria, 239 

76. The Revolution of 1848 in Germany, 244 

77. Europe after the Revolutions of 1848 247 

78. Literature and Philosophy from 1789 to 1848, 251 

79. Art and Science from 1789 to 1848, . 254 

80. The Eastern Question : The Crimean War 257 y 

81. The Union of Italy, 261 

82. The Overthrow of Austria, 265/ 

83. The Re-constitution of Germany and Austria, 269 \/ 

84. The Franco-German War 274 

85. Europe after the Franco-German War : The Dreikaiserbund, . . . 278 

86. The Eastern Question : The Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78, .... 282 

87. Europe to 1890 : The Triple Alliance, 286 



APPENDIX. 
I. The Rulers of Europe from 1600 to 1899 : The Great Powers, . . 293 
II. The Rulers of Europe from 1600 to 1899 : The Lesser Powers, . 300 

III. The Rulers of Europe from 1600 to 1899 : Italy, 305 

IV. The Rulers of Europe from 1600 to 1899 : Germany, 310 

V. The Rulers of Independent and Semi-independent States formed 

from the Turkish Empire during the 19th Century, 315 

VI. Genealogical Table representing the Relationship of the Claim- 
ants to the Spanish Succession (1700), 317 

VII. Genealogical Table representing the Succession to the Russian 

Throne in the 18th Century, 318 

VIII. Genealogical Table representing the Claimants to the Austrian 

Succession (1740) and the Children of Maria Theresa, .... 319 



General Bibliography. 

Bibliographies. 

Langlois : Manuel de bibliographie historique. 
Monod : Bibliographie de l'histoire de France. 
Franklin : Les sources de l'histoire de France. 

DahImann=Waitz : Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte. (ed. Steindorff.) 
Pirenne : Bibliographie de l'histoire de Belgique. 

Historische Gesellschaft zu Berlin: Jahresberichte der Geschichtswissen- 
schaft. (Since 1878.) 

Atlases. 

Putzger : Historischer Schul-Atlas. 

Poole : Historical Atlas of Modern Europe. (Clarendon Press. — In course of 
publication. ) 

Schrader : Atlas de gdographie historique. 

Droysen : Allgemeiner historischer Hand-Atlas. 

Spruner=Menke : Hand- Atlas fur die Geschichte des Mittelalters und der 

neueren Zeit. 

Chronologies. 

Bond : Handy-Book of Rules and Tables for Verifying Dates. 

Ploetz : Epitome of Universal History, (ed. Tillinghast, to 1883.) 

Hassall : Handbook of European History, 476-1871. 

Ghillany : Europaische Chronik von 1492 bis Ende April, 1877. 

I/art de verifier les dates des faits historiques. (To 1827.) 

Belviglieri : Tavole sincrone e genealogiche di storia italiana dal 300 al 1870. 

Genealogies. 

Lorenz : Genealogisches Handbuch der europaischen Staatengeschichte. 
Grote: Stammtafeln. 

George : Genealogical Tables illustrative of Modern History. 
Almanach de Gotha. (Since 1764.) 

Historical Dictionaries. 

Haydn : Dictionary of Dates. 

Harper's Book of Facts. (Ed. Lewis. American edition of Haydn.) 

Herbst : Encyklopadie der neueren Geschichte. 

Laianne : Dictionnaire historique de la France. 



xvi General Bibliography. 

Biographical Dictionaries. 

Thomas : Universal Pronouncing Dictionary of Biography and Mythology 
(1886). 
CEttinger : Moniteur des dates. (1869, with supplements to 1882.) 
Michaud : Biographie universelle. (1854-65.) 
Hoefer : Nouvelle biographie generale. (1857-66.) 

Vapereau : Dictionnaire universel des contemporains. (Sixth edition, 1892.) 
Stephen and Lee : Dictionary of National Biography. (18S5 — In progress.) 
Liliencron andWegele : Allgemeine deutsche Biographie. (1877 In progress.) 
Wurzbach : Biographisches Lexicon des Kaiserthunis (Esterreich. (1856-91.) 
Van der Aa : Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden. (1852-78.) 

General Histories. 

Hassall : Periods of European History. (To 1815 — final volume to appear.) 
Lavisse and Rambaud : Histoire generale du iv e siecle a. nos jours. (To 1871 — 
final volume to appear. ) 

Collections of Histories. 

(Putnams'): The Story of the Nations. 
Oncken : Allgemeine Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen. 
Heeren, Ukert, Gsesebrecht and Lamprecht: Geschichte der europaischen 
Staaten. 

General Histories of Countries. 

flartin: Histoire de France. (To 1789.) 

Sismondi : Histoire des Frangais. (To 1789. ) 

Michelet: Histoire de France. (To 1789.) 

Dareste : Histoire de France. (To 1848.) 

Lafuente: Historia general de Bspafia. (To 1789.) 

Canovas del Castillo : Historia general de Espaiia escrita por individuos de 
numero de la Real Academia de la Historia. 

Botta: Storia dTtalia. (To 1789.) 

Cantil : Histoire des Italiens. (Tr. Lacombe, to 1856. ) 

Daru : Histoire de la republique de Venise. (To 1798.) 

MUHer, Gloutz-BIozheim and Hottinger : Histoire de la confederation Suisse ; 
traduite de l'allemand et continuee par 3fotiard et Vulliemin. (To 1815.) 

Finlay : History of Greece. (To 1864. ) 

Hammer : Histoire de l'empire ottoman. (Tr. Hellert, to 1774.) 

Sayous : Histoire generale des Hongrois. (To 1815.) 

Xenopol : Histoire des Roumains de la Dacie Trajane. (To 1859.) 

Rambaud: History of Russia. (Tr. Lang, to 1891.) 



General Bibliography. xvii 

Leger : History of Austro-Hungary. (Tr. Hill, to 1889.) 
Krones : Handbuch der Geschichte CEJsterreichs. (To 1870.) 
Allen : Histoire de Danemark. (Tr. Beauvois, to 1866.) 

Blok : History of the People of the Netherlands. (Tr. Bierstadt and Putnam. 
In progress. ) 

Juste: Histoire de Belgique. (To 1865.) 

Historical Geographies. 

Freeman: Historical Geography of Europe. (To 1879.) 

Himly : Histoire de la formation territoriale des etats de 1' Europe centrale. 
(Second Ed., to 1890.) 
Hertslet : Map of Europe by Treaty, 1814-1891. 

Collections of Memoirs. 

Petitot and Monmerque : Collection complete des memoires relatifs a 1' his- 
toire de France depuis l'avenement de Henri IV. jusqu'a la paix de Paris, conclue 
en 1763. 

Michaud and Poujoulat : Nouvelle collection des memoires pour servir a l'his- 
toire de France depuis le XIII a siecle jusqu'a la fin du XVIIP siecle. 

Collections of Treaties and Diplomatic Correspondence. 

Dumont and Rousset de flissy : Corps universel diplomatique du droit des 
gens contenant un recueil des traitez. (To 1737.) 

Wenck: Codex juris gentium recentissimi. (1735-1772.) 

Martens: Recueil de traites etc., depuis 1761 jusqu'a present. (Continued by 
others, with slight changes of title, to the present day. ) 

Martens : Recueil des traites et conventions conclus par la Russie avec les 
puissances etrangeres. 

Sorel : Recueil des instructions donndes aux ambassadeurs et ministres de 
France depuis les traites de Westphalie jusqu'a la Revolution francaise. 

National Collections of Documents. 

France : Collection de documents inedits sur l'histoire de France. (Since 1835. ) 

Spain : Coleccion de documentos ineditos para la historia de Espafia. (Since 
1842.) 

Netherlands : Werken uitgegeven door het Historisch Genootschap, gevestigd 
te Utrecht. (Since 1846.) 

Austro=Hungary : Fontes Rerum Austriacarum. CTjsterreichische Geschichts- 
Ouellen. (Since 1855.) 

Russia: Russkoe Istoricheskoe Obshchestvo : Sbornik. (Since 1867). 

Prussia: Publicationen aus den k. preussischen Staatsarchiven. (Since 1878. ) 



xviii General Bibliography. 

Publications of Academies. 

Academie des sciences morales et politiques: Memoires. (Since 1798.) 
Comptes rendus des seances et travaux. (Since 1S40. ) 
Die konigliche bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Miinchen : 

Gelehrte Anzeigen. (1835-1860.) Sitzungsberichte. (Since i860. ) 
Die konigliche preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin : 

Bericht iiber die zur Bekanntmachung geeigneten Verhandlungen. (1836-1855.) 
Monatsberichte. (1856-1881.) Sitzungsberichte. (Since 1882.) 

Die kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften (Vienna): Sitzungsberichte. 
(Since 1848. ) Denkschriften. (Since 1850. ) Archiv fur Kunde osterreichischer 
Geschichts-Quellen. ( 1848-1865. ) Archiv fiir osterreichische Geschichte. (Since 
1865.) 

Koniglich Sachsischen Qesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig : 
Berichte. (Since 1849.) Abhandlungen. (Since 1850.) 

Historical Reviews. 

Historische Zeitschrift. (Since 1859.) 
Revue des questions historiques. (Since 1866.) 
Revue historique. (Since 1876.) 
English Historical Review. (Since 1886.) 
American Historical Review. (Since 1895. ) 



LECTURES 

ox 

MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY. 



LECTURE 1. 



INTRODUCTORY: 

EUROPE EST 1600. 

The first half of the 17th century was marked by the same charac- 
teristics as the last half of the 16th, but traces of the modern European 
system, which existed after the Treaties of Westphalia and of the Pyre- 
nees, were to be seen in the policy pursued by Henry IV. of France 
and Cardinal Richelieu. 

The period covered by the 16th and first half of the 17th century was 
a period of transition from the ferment caused by the Reformation, the 
discovery of the Xew World and of the direct sea route to Asia, the 
invention of printing, etc., to the more settled conditions of internal 
government and international relations, which lasted from the Treaties 
of Westphalia to the French Revolution. 

The characteristic features of this transition period were the Wars of 
Religion. 

Causes of the Wars of Religion : the earnestness imparted by the 
Reformation supplemented by the work of the Counter- Reformation ; 
so that war on behalf of religion, and persecution came to be considered 
religious duties ; religious intolerance among earnest men matched b\~ 
the unscrupulous conduct of politicians. 

During the Wars of Religion the sense of National Unity began to 
be felt, binding peoples by their countries rather than by their faiths: in 
this wa}- the Wars of Religion helped to modify the results of feudalism. 



2 Henry IV. of France. 

Different effects of the Wars of Religion in different countries, e.g., 
(i) in the Netherlands, (2) in France, (3) in Germany. 

Tendency toward strong government and standing armies to avert 
the horrors of religious and civil wars ; France being the first country 
to obey this tendency became, during the first half of the 17th cen- 
tury, the most important nation in Europe. 

Where the national spirit developed, countries became strong in spite 
of religious internal differences, e. g., France, England, the United 
Provinces. 

Relative position of the powers of Europe toward each other in 1600. 

The condition of Germany : unsatisfactory settlement made of the 
religious question by the Peace of Augsburg (1555) ; the pretensions 
and actual strength of the Holy Roman Empire ; the electors, and the 
princes of the Empire ; certainty of further religious war in Germany. 

The Papacy : its increased spiritual strength after the Council of 
Trent (1545-1563), due to the Counter- Reformation and the work of the 
Jesuits. 

In the year 1600, although religious war impended in Germany owing 
to German conditions, it was practically at its close elsewhere, for 
Henry IV. had just issued the Edict of Nantes, Philip II. of Spain was 
just dead, and Elizabeth of England was at the very end of her reign. 



LECTURE 2. 



THE POLICY OF HENRY IV. OE FRANCE. 

The character and early career of Henry IV. (b. 1553). 

His part in the Wars of Religion in France. 

On the death of Henry III. (1589), Henry of Bourbon, who had 
been King of Navarre since 1572, claimed the throne of France as next 
male heir ; his struggles as Huguenot leader against the Catholics. 

He adopted the Catholic religion (1593), and thus became a national 
king. 



Henry IV. of France. 3 

The issue of the Edict of Nantes (13 April, 1598), and the pacifica- 
tion of the Huguenots : terms of the Edict. 

Conclusion of the war with Philip II. of Spain by the Treaty of Ver- 
vins (2 May, 1598): terms of the treaty. 

The internal policy of Henry IV. as worked out by the Due de Sully 
(b. 1560, d. 1641). 

i. His absolutism in government; justified by the turbulence and 
want of patriotism of the nobles : execution of Biron (31 
July, 1602). 
ii. His administrative reforms. 

Hi. His judicial reforms : seats in the Parlements made hereditary. 
iv. His financial reforms : the new taxation. 
v. His advancement of the material prosperity of his people : 

a. by encouraging agriculture : Olivier de Serres. 

b. by undertaking public works. 

c. by establishing manufactures. 

d. b}' reviving commerce. 

vi. His interest in trans- Atlantic exploration and emigration : 
foundation of Annapolis (1604), of Quebec (1608). 

The foreign policy of Henry IV. : the ' ' Grand Design ' ' : the ques- 
tion of its authenticity. 

Assassination of Henry IV. at Paris by Francois Ravaillac (14 May, 
1610): its effect on France and on Europe. 

Authorities : The most recent small book in English on the life of Henry IV. 
is a biography by Willert. The best secondary authorities are Poirson, His- 
toire du regne de Henri IV., 4 vols. ; Guadet. Henri IV. sa vie etses ecrits ; Per- 
verts, Les mariages espagnols sous le regne de Henri IV. et la regence de Marie de 
Medicis, and I/Eglise et l'Etat en France sous le regne de Henri IV. et la regence 
de Marie de Medicis ; Zeller, Henri IV. et Marie de Medicis ; Lacombe, Henri 
IV. et sa politique ; Philippson, Heinrich IV. und Philipp III. ; Anquez, Henri 
IV. et l'Allemagne, d'apres les memoires et la correspondance de Jacques Bon- 
gars; Rott, Henry IV., les Suisses et la Haute-Italie; Kermaingant, L'ambassade 
de France en Angleterre sous Henri IV. ; Pujol, Edm. Richer : etude sur la reno- 
vation du gallicanisme au commencement du XVII. ieme siecle, 2 vols.; Read, 
•Henri IV. et le ministre Daniel Chamier ; Henrard, Henri IV. et la princessede 
Conde ; and Feret, Henri IV. et l'Eglise ; see also the essays on "La France sous 
Henri IV." in Hanotaux, Etudes Historiques sur le XVI e et le XVII e siecle, and on 



4 The Thirty Years' War, 1618-34.. 

"Ravaillac et ses complices" in Loiseleur, Questions historiques du XVIP. siecle, 
as well as Vol. 1, chap. 6 of L,es Finances francaises, by the Baron de Nervo. 
Short excerpts from the primary authorities are to be found in three volumes 
in the series edited by Zellcr, Henri IV. et Sully, Henri IV. et Biron, and L,a Fin 
de Henri IV. The chief primary authorities are the various collections of the 
letters of Henry IV., including the Lettres missives, ed. Berger de Xivrey and 
Guadet, 9 vols., in the Documents inedits, the Lettres intimes, a selection ed. Dus- 
sieux, and the Correspondance avec Maurice le Savant, ed. De Rommel; Benoit, 
Histoire de l'Edit de Nantes, 5 vols.; the first three volumes of M. Ritter, Briefe 
und Acten zur Geschichte des dreissigjahrigen Krieges; the Memoires of Villeroy; 
the contemporary histories of Mathieu, Agrippa d' 'Aubigni and De Thou; the 
Memoires-journaux oi & Estoile ; the Chrouologie novenaire and Chronologie sep- 
tenaire of Raima Cayet ; the Negociations oijeannin; the Journal of Bassompierre; 
and above all, the Economies royales, or Memoires, of Sully, with the recent criti- 
cisms by Pfister in the Revue Historique, vols. 54, 55, 56. 



LECTURE 3. 



THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR: TO THE DEATH OF GUSTAVUS 
ADOLPHUS AND OF WALLENSTEIN. 

The approach of renewed religious war in Germany : changes in Ger- 
man conditions since the Peace of Augsburg (1555) ; political effect of 
the Reformation ; secularization of ecclesiastical states. 

The spread of Calvinism : the Ecclesiastical Reservation ; the Coun- 
ter-Reformation. 

Forewarnings of the war : (1) the case of the Elector of Cologne 
(1584) ; (2) the case of the city of Aix-la-Chapelle (1589); (3) the case 
of the town of Donauworth (1607). 

Formation of the Protestant Union (1608), and of the Cathoilc 
Ueague (1609). 

The Emperor and his political position in Germany : the three lay- 
electors — the Margrave of Brandenburg, the Duke of Saxony, and the 
Elector Palatine ; the three ecclesiastical electors — the Archbishops of 
Mayence, Cologne, and Treves ; the Duke of Bavaria. 

The Emperor as head of the House of Hapsburg : his position in 



The Thirty Years' War, 1618-34.. 5 

Bohemia, in Austria, and in Hungary ; the Emperors Rudolph II. 
(1576-1612), and Matthias (1612-1619). 

The disputed succession to Juliers-Cleves (1609): interference of 
Henry IV. of France and the Dutch. 

The outbreak of the Thirty Years' War: the " throwing from the 
windows " at Prague (23 May, 1618); accession of Ferdinand II., and 
election of Frederick V., Elector Palatine, who had married Elizabeth, 
daughter of James I. of England, as King of Bohemia (1619); the 
battle of the White Mountain (8 Nov., 1620), and occupation of the 
Rhenish or Lower Palatinate by Spanish troops (Apr., 1621); the 
Duke of Bavaria made an Elector (1623), and granted the Upper Palat- 
inate ; triumph of the Catholic League ; Tilly (b. 1559), in com- 
mand of the army of the League, defeated the Margrave of Baden at 
Wimpfen (6 May, 1622), and Christian of Brunswick at Hochst (20 July, 
1622) and at Stadtlohn (6 Aug., 1623). 

Intervention of Christian IV., King of Denmark, in aid of the Protes- 
tants (1625) : Wallenstein (b. 1583^, in command of the Emperor's 
army, defeated Mansfeld at Dessau (25 Apr., 1626); death of Christian 
of Brunswick (9 June); Tilly defeated the Danes at Lutter (27 Aug.); 
death of Mansfeld (29 Nov.); the siege of Stralsund (1628); Christian 
IV. made peace at Liibeck (22 May, 1629). 

Height of the Catholic success : the Emperor Ferdinand II. issued 
the Edict of Restitution (6 March, 1629); Diet of Ratisbon (1630); dis- 
missal of Wallenstein. 

Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, induced to come to the rescue 
of Protestantism : his conquest of Pomerania (1630); the sack of Mag- 
deburg by Tilly (20 May, 1631); the Electors of Brandenburg and 
Saxony forced to join Gustavus Adolphus ; the battle of Breitenfeld or 
Leipzig (17 Sept., 163 1); the policy of Gustavus; his march to the 
Rhine ; defeat of Tilly at the Lech (15 Apr., 1632); death of Tilly (20 
Apr.); the conquest of Bavaria and the capture of Munich by Gus- 
tavus ; Wallenstein recalled ; Gustavus Adolphus killed at the battle 
of Liitzen (16 Nov., 1632). 

The character of Gustavus Adolphus ; his military genius ; the 
Swedish nation and army ; his political schemes ; the startling changes 
caused by his intervention in the Thirty Years' War, and by his death. 



6 The Thirty Years' War, i6zS-j£. 

Assassination of Wallenstein (25 Feb., 1634) ; his character and po- 
litical aims. 

End of the earnest period of the Thirty Years' War. 

Authorities : Of small books in English, Gardiner, The Thirty Years' War, 
and Fletcher, Life of Gustavus Adolphus, may be recommended. In French, 
Charveriat, Histoire de la guerre de Trente ans, 2 vols., is readable, and in Ger- 
man, Winter, Geschichte des dreissigjahrigen Krieges. The best secondary 
histories for the early part of the war are, Gindely, Geschichte des dreissig- 
jahrigen Krieges, 5 vols., of which a popular and abridged edition has been trans- 
lated into English by Ten Brook, and Klopp, Der dreissigjahrige Krieg bis zum 
Tode Gustav Adolfs, 3 vols.; Schiller, Geschichte des dreissigjahrigen Krieges, is 
still read as a German classic : among more special books should be noted Huber, 
Geschichte CEJsterreichs, vol. v.; Gindely, Rudolf II. und seine Zeit (1608-1612), 
2 vols. ; Stieve, Der Orsprung des dreissigjahrigen Krieges ; Ritter, Geschichte der 
Deutschen Union (1598-1612) ; Hurter, Geschichte Kaiser Ferdinands II., 4 vols., 
being vols. viii. to xi. of his Geschichte Kaiser Ferdinands II. und seiner Eltern ; 
Markham, The Fighting Veres ; Opel, Der Niedersachsich-Danische Krieg ; Droy- 
sen, Gustav Adolf ; Gfrorer, Gustav Adolf, Konig von Schweden, und seine Zeit, 3 
vols.; Harte, History of Gustavus Adolphus, 2 vols.; Vincent Chapman, History 
of Gustavus Adolphus and of the Thirty Years' War, 2 vols.; Dodge, Gustavus 
Adolphus ; Buhring, Venedig, Gustav Adolf und Rohan ; K. A. Midler, Kiirfurst 
Johann Georg der Erste ; Ranke, Geschichte Wallensteins ; Gindely, Waldstein 
wahrend seines ersten Generalats, 2 vols.; Forster, Wallenstein als Feldherr und 
Landesfiirst ; Von Janko, Wallenstein ; Hurter, Zur Geschichte Wallensteins, and 
Wallensteins vier letzten Lebensjahre ; Gadeke, Wallensteins Verhandlungen mit 
den Schweden und Sachsen (1631-1634) ; Hildebrandt, Wallenstein und seine 
Verbindungen mit den Schweden ; Hallwich, Wallenstein's Ende, and Gestalten 
aus Wallensteins Lager ; Klopp, Tilly, and Villermont, Tilly, and Ernest de Mans- 
feldt. Among primary authorities consult Abelin, Theatrum Europseum, 2 
vols , and Arma Suecica, 4 vols.; J. L. Gottfried, Fortgesetze historische Chronick ; 
Lotichius, Rerum Germanicarum sub Matthia, Ferdinandis II. et III. imperatori- 
bus gestarum libri 55 ; Khevenhidler, Annales Ferdinandei, 12 vols ; Brachelius, 
Historia sui temporis ; Riccius, De bellis Germanicis libri x.; Gualdo Priorato, 
Historia delle guerre di Ferdinando II., e Ferdinando III., imperatori, e del re Fil- 
ippo IV. di Spagna contra Gostava Adolfo, re di Svetia, e Luigi XIII., re di Francia 
( 1 630-1640) ; Konung Gustaf II. Adolfs Skrifter, ed. Styffe; Inner, Die Verhand- 
lungen Schwedens und seiner Verbiindeten mit Wallenstein und dem Kaiser, 3 
vols. ; Forslt r's and other collections of Wallenstein' 1 s Letters ; M. Ritter, Briefe 
und Acten zur Geschichte des dreissigjahrigen Krieges in den Zeiten des vorwal- 
tenden Einflusses der Wittelsbacher, 5 vols., and Gardiner, Letters and other Doc- 
uments illustrating the relations between England and Germany at the commence- 
ment of the Thirty Years' War (Camrlen Society, 1865). 



Richelieu. 
LECTURE 4. 



THE POLICY OF RICHELIEU. 

The government of France from the death of Henry IV. (1610) to the 
ministry of Richelieu (1624) a period of court intrigues, of weakness of 
the central authority, and of vacillating foreign policy. 

The Regency of Marie de Medicis in the name of her son, Louis XIII. 
(1610-1617): her favorites; the one event of importance the Spanish 
marriages, Louis XIII. marrying Anne of Austria, daughter of Philip 
III. of Spain, and Philip, the heir to the Spanish throne, marrying 
Elizabeth, sister of Louis XIII. (1612); murder of Concini, Marechal 
d.'Ancre (24 April, 16 17). 

The States- General held in 1614: what it was, what it might have 
done, and how it failed. 

The government of the favorite, the Due de Luynes (1617-1621): the 
escape of Marie de Medicis from Blois (16 19); the struggle between 
mother and son; attack commenced on the political power of the Hu- 
guenots; capture of St. Jean d'Angety (1621); Peace of Montpellier 
(1623). 

Richelieu (b. 5 Sept., 1585; Bishop of Lucon, 16 Apr., 1607; Car- 
dinal, 5 Sept., 1622) appointed chief minister of France (19 Apr., 
1624); his early career; his character; his political aims. 
Richelieu's policy: 

i. To make the crown of France all-powerful by overcoming the 
nobility: first conspiracy of Gaston, Duke of Orleans, the 
King's brother (1626); the edict against duelling, and execu- 
tion of Montmorency-Boutteville (1627) ; the " Day of 
Dupes" (11 Nov., 1630); imprisonment and exile of Marie 
de Medicis; intrigues of the exiles, including Gaston of 
Orleans, with Lorraine and Spain; invasion of Gaston of 
Orleans; execution of Montmorency (30 Oct., 1632); part 
played \yy the queen, Anne of Austria; her relations with 
the Duke of Buckingham; birth of the Dauphin (5 Sept., 
1638); the conspiracy of Cinq- Mars; his execution (12 Sept., 
1642). 



8 Richelieu. 

ii. To unite the force of France by destroying the political power 
of the Huguenots: the rights possessed by the Huguenots 
under the Edict of Nantes; their unpatriotic spirit a remnant 
of the ideas of the 16th century; the civil war of 1625-26; 
the siege of L,a Rochelle (1627-28); help sent to the Hugue- 
nots by England; the surrender of Ea Rochelle (28 Oct., 
1628); the Peace of Alais (28 June, 1629), granting the 
Huguenots religious liberty, but destroying their political 
independence. 
in. To overthrow the power of the House of Hapsburg: Riche- 
lieu's adoption of part of the ' ' Grand Design' ' ; his endeavors 
to assist the Protestant princes, and to cut the communica- 
tion between the Hapsburgs of Austria and of Spain; mar- 
riage of Charles I., of England, with Henrietta Maria (1 
May, 1625); the first war in Italy (1624-26); the Valtelline 
restored to the Grisons; the second war in Italy (1628-30) 
against Spain, the Empire and Savoy; Richelieu in the field; 
Pignerol captured (22 March, 1630), and his candidate recog- 
nized as Duke of Mantua by the Treaty of Cherasco (6 
April, 1631); Richelieu's support of the Protestant Nether- 
lands; Richelieu and the German Protestants; Pere Joseph 
at the Diet of Ratisbon (1630); Gustavus Adolphus induced 
to enter Germany; his relations with Sweden; intervention 
of France in the Thirty Years' War (1635). 
Death of Richelieu (4 Dec, 1642), followed by that of Louis XIII. 
(14 May, 1643): the relations between them; effect of Richelieu's policy 
on the French monarchy and on the position of France in Europe. 

Authorities : The best small book in English is Lodge, Richelieu, and refer- 
ence may be made to Bridges, France under Richelieu and Colbert. Among 
secondary works, founded on documents, consult Perkins, France under Riche- 
lieu and Mazarin; Perrens works cited under Lecture 2; Zeller, La minorite de 
Louis XIII.; Louis XIII., Marie de Medicis, chef du conseil; Le Connetable de 
Luynes; Richelieu et les ministres de Louis XIII.; Puyol, Louis XIII. et le Beam; 
Bazin, Histoire de France sous Louis XIII.; Picot, Histoire des Etats Generaux, 
vols. 4, 5; Georges d'Avenel, Richelieu et la monarchie absolue, 4 vols.; Tophi, 
Louis XIII. et Richelieu ; Houssaye, Le Cardinal de Berulle et le Cardinal 
de Richelieu; Basserie, La conjuration de Cinq-Mars; La Garde, Le Due 



The Thirty Years' War, 1634.-4.8. 9 

de Rohan et les Protestants sous Louis XIII. ; Laugel, Henry de Rohan; the Vicomte 
de Meaux, La Reforme et la politique francaise en Europe, 2 vols.; Fagniez, Le 
Pere Joseph et Richelieu 2 vols.; and above all the first two volumes (all yet pub- 
lished), containing the latest account of Richelieu's early years, of Hanotanx, His- 
toire du Cardinal de Richelieu. Among seventeenth century histories reference 
should be made to Aubery, Memoires pour l'histoire du Cardinal-Due de Riche- 
lieu, 5 vols. The great primary authority is the collection of Lettres, instruc- 
tions diplomatiques et papiers d'Etat of Richelieu, edited by Georges d'Avenel, 
8 vols., in the Documents inedits; with his Maximes d' Etat in the same collection, 
his Memoires, and his Memoire, ecrit de sa main, l'annee 1607 ou 1610, alors qu'il 
meditait de paraitre a la cour, ed. Baschet. See also the Memoires of Rohan, Omer 
Talon, Montglat, Brienne, Mathieu Mole, Madame de Motteville, £)' 'Estrees and 
Fontenay-Mareuil, the Correspondance of Cardinal de Sourdis, and the Mercure 
Frangois. 



LECTURE 5. 



THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR: FROM 1634 TO 1648. 

With the death of Gustavus Adolphus and of Wallenstein the war 
ceased to be a war for religion and assumed a more political aspect; 
the ruin of Germany; national and personal ambitions; the mercenary- 
troops and military adventurers. 

Wallenstein 's army brought directly under the Emperor: position 
of Bernard of Saxe- Weimar (b. 1604); the Swedish armies and the pol- 
icy of Chancellor Oxenstiern (b. 1583, d. 1654). 

The battle of Nordlingen (5 and 6 Sept., 1634): defeat of the Swedes 
under Bernard and Horn; its important results; victorious position of 
the Emperor and the Catholics; the Elector of Saxony made peace 
with the Emperor at Prague (30 May, 1635); the plans of Oxenstiern; 
if the Swedes could have been pacified and the French had not inter- 
vened, the Thirty Years' War might have ended. 

The intervention of Richelieu: occupation of Lorraine ; Alsace 
granted to France by the German Protestant princes for active aid 
(Nov., 1634); purchase of Bernard of Saxe-Weimar and his army 
(25 Oct., 1635); Richelieu's alliance with Oxenstiern (Apr., 1635); 



io The Thirty Years' War, 1634.-4.8. 

his treaty with the Dutch, after the death of Isabella, for the division 
of the Catholic Netherlands (8 Feb., 1635); his negotiations with the 
Swiss and the Dukes of Savoy, Mantua, and Parma; effect of Richelieu's 
intervention the prolongation of the war. 

France invaded by the Spaniards on the northeast and by the Im- 
perialists on the east (1636); the Swedish general, Baner, forced back to 
the Baltic; closer alliance made between Richelieu and Oxenstiern; the 
Saxons and the Imperialists defeated by Baner (b. 1595) at Wittstock 
(4 Oct., 1636). 

Ferdinand III. elected Emperor (22 Dec, 1636); death of Ferdinand 
II. (15 Feb., 1637). 

The last years of Richelieu's foreign policy: the successes of Bernard 
of Saxe- Weimar on the Rhine; his ambitions; capture of Breisach (17 
Dec, 1638); death of Bernard (18 July, 1639); invasion of France by 
the Spaniards (1640); battle of Chemnitz (14 April, 1639) and death of 
Baner (20 May, 1641); Richelieu's attempt to divert Spain from Ger- 
man affairs by causing an insurrection in Catalonia (1640) and by en- 
couraging the revolution in Portugal (1640). 

The first negotiations for a general peace (1640-41) ; accession of 
Frederick William as Elector of Brandenburg (1640) ; his declaration 
of neutrality (1642). 

The progress of the war after the death of Richelieu : rise into prom- 
inence of Conde (b. 1621, d. 1686), Turenne (b. 1611, d. 1675), Torsten- 
son (b. 1603, d. 1651), and Wrangel (b. 1613.-d. 1676); Spain unable 
to assist the Emperor without further subsidies ; destruction of the Im- 
perial and Saxon army by Torstenson at Breitenfeld (2 Nov., 1642); 
outbreak of war between Denmark and Sweden (1643), ended by the 
Treaty of Bromsebro (1645) ; Conde' s defeat of the Spaniards at Rocroi 
(19 May, 1643) ; reorganization of Bernard's army by Turenne. 

Congresses for the consideration of terms of peace meet at Osnabriick 
and Miinster. 

The battles of Freiburg (3-5 Aug., 1644), where Turenne and Conde 
defeated Mercy, and of Jankau (6 March, 1645), where Torstenson de- 
stroyed an Imperialist army ; truce made by the Elector of Saxony 
with the Swedes (31 Aug., 1645) ; the battles of Marienthal (5 May, 
1645), where Mercy defeated Turenne, and of Allersheim (3 Aug., 1645), 



The Treaties of Westphalia. n 

in which Mercy was killed ; the invasion of Bavaria : the Elector Max- 
imilian forced to make a truce at Ulm (15 March, 1647) ; Turenne and 
Wrangel defeated the Bavarians and Imperalists at Zusmarshausen (17 
May, 1648) ; Conde's defeat of the Spaniards at Lens (10 Aug., 1648) ; 
the Castle of Prague seized by the Swedes under Konigsmark (26 July, 
1648). 

The Thirty Years' War concluded by the Treaties of Westphalia (24 
October, 1648) : peace made by the Emperor with France and Sweden, 
but Spain remained at war with France. 

Authorities : Gardiner, The Thirty Years' War, is the best small hook in 
English ; Gindely should be replaced among secondary authorities by Bart- 
hold, Geschichte des grossen deutschen Krieges vom Tode Gustav Adolf s ab, mit 
besondere Riicksicht auf Frankreich, 2 vols. ; Droysen, Bernhard von Weimar, 2 
vols.; Sugenheim. Frankreich's Einfluss auf und Beziehungen zu Deutschland, vol. 
i.; Koch, Geschichte des deutschen Reichs unter der Regierung Ferdinands III., 
2 vols; Des Roberts, Campagnes de Charles IV., due de Lorraine (1634-1636); 
Heilmann, Die Feldziige den Bayern in 1643, 1644 und 1645 ; Dudik, Die 
Schweden in Bdhmen und Mahren (1640-1650) ; Biedermann, Deutschlands 
triibste Zeit, oder Der dreissigjahrige Krieg in seine Folgen fur den deutsche Cul- 
turleben ; the Due d' Aumale, Histoire des princes de la maison de Conde, vols. 5, 
6. The primary authorities as for Lecture 3, with the addition of Georges d' 
Avenel, Richelieu's Letters,cited for Lecture 4 ; Szil&gyi, Actes et Documents pour 
servir a l'histoire de l'alliance de Rakoczy avec les Francais et les Suedois ; Bon- 
geant, Histoire du Traite de Westphalie, 6 vols., and Axel Oxenstiernd' s Skriften 
och Brefvexling, 6 vols., and omitting Gardiner, Letters, Styffe, Irmer and Wal- 
lenstein. 



LECTURE 6. 



THE TREATIES OF WESTPHALIA. 

The history of the Treaties of Westphalia : a congress for peace re- 
solved upon in 1641 ; suggested by the Elector of Mayence in 1639 ; 
approved by the Imperial Diet at Ratisbon (1640-41); suggestion that 
two congresses, in one of which the Emperor should deal with the 
Swedes. Dutch and Protestant princes, and in the other with France, 



12 The Treaties of Westphalia. 

should be held to arrange terms of peace, at Liibeck and Cologne ; at 
the wish of the Swedes Osnabriick and Munster chosen instead; by a 
resolution of the Imperial Diet, with the assent of the Emperor, the Ger- 
man princes and free cities allowed to be represented at the congresses. 

Meeting of the congresses (1644) : Cardinal Chigi, Papal Nuncio, 
and Contarini, Venetian ambassador, were present as mediators ; Traut- 
mannsdorf, Nassau and Volmar, L,amberg and Crane were present for 
the Emperor ; Longueville, D'Avaux, Groullart and Abel Servien for 
France ; John Oxenstiern and Salvius for Sweden; Peharanda, the 
Archbishop of Cambrai, Saavedra and Brun for Spain ; and Adrian 
de Pauw, with seven others, for the United Provinces ; delays about 
precedence ; the envoys of France and Sweden presented their demands 
(June, 1645) ; effect of the military operations on the negotiations ; the 
part played by the Elector of Bavaria ; the Treaties of Westphalia 
signed at Munster (24 October, 1648). 

Chief points of the Treaties of Westphalia: 

A. With regard to non-German states: 

i. France received the Three Bishoprics (Metz, Toul and Verdun) 
occupied in 1552, Alsace, except Strasburg and reserving 
the rights of the Empire, Breisach and the right to garrison 
Philipsburg, and Pignerol; the Duke of Lorraine not to be 
aided by the Emperor and left to make a separate treaty 
with France. 

ii. Sweden received Western Pomerania with the island of Riigen, 
Stettin, Wismar, the archbishopric of Bremen and the bisho- 
pric of Verden, with representation in the Diet of the 
Empire. 
Hi. The Swiss cantons were recognized as independent of the 
Empire. 

iv. The Protestant Netherlands, which had been recognized as 
independent of Spain by Philip IV. (30 Jan., 1648), were 
declared independent of the Empire, and received certain 
districts in Brabant and Luxemburg. 

B. With regard to German states: 

i. Brandenburg received, in compensation for Western Pomerania, 
the archbishopric of Magdeburg, and the bishoprics of Hal- 



The Treaties of Westphalia. 13 

berstadt, Cammin and Minden. [The succession to Cleves- 
Juliers was settled in 1666 by Brandenburg receiving Cleves, 
the Mark and Ravensberg, and Neuburg receiving Juliers 
and Berg.] 

it. Saxony retained Lusatia and part of Magdeburg. 

Hi. Mecklenburg received, in compensation for Wismar, the bis- 
hoprics of Schwerin and Ratzeburg. 

iv. Hesse- Cassel received the abbey of Hirschfeld. 
v. Bavaria received the Upper Palatinate and retained the elec- 
torate conferred in 1623. 

vi. Charles Louis, eldest son of the expelled Elector Palatine, re- 
ceived the Lower or Rhenish Palatinate, and a new electorate 
was created for him. 

C. With regard to the religious question: 

i. The terms of the Peace of Augsburg were confirmed, fixing 

the date for ecclesiastical property at 1 Jan., 1624. 
it. The Ecclesiastical Reservation was acknowledged by the 

Protestants. 
Hi. Calvinism was recognized as well as Lutheranism. 

D. With regard to the Empire (effect of the book ' ' Hippolithus a 

Lapide"): 

i. Territorial supremacy, including the right of making alliances, 

granted to the States of the Empire. 
ii. Powers of the Imperial Diet (Reichstag) defined. 
Hi. Concurrent jurisdiction of the Imperial Chamber (Reichskam- 
mergericht) and Aulic Council (Reichshofrath) acknowl- 
edged. 

E. General amnesty declared, and the Peace of Westphalia made a 
fundamental law cf the Empire. 

Effect of the Treaties of Westphalia on Germany: the practical dis- 
integration of the Holy Roman Empire. 

Effect of the Treaties of Westphalia on Europe: commencement 
of a new era, in which political succeeded religious distinctions. 

Authorities : All secondary histories of the Thirty Years' War devote their 
concluding chapters to the Treaties of Westphalia, but see also Kerviler, Abei 
Servien; OdJmer, Die Politik Schwedens irn Westphalischen Friedenscongress ; 



14 The Fronde. 

J. S. Putter, Geist des Westphalischen Friedes,and his Historical Development of 
the Political Constitution of the Germanic Empire, vol. ii. The primary au- 
thorities are, for the terms of the treaties, /. G. von Meiern, Acta Pacis West- 
phalicae oder Westphalische Friedeshandlungen und Geschichte, 6 vols.; and, 
for the history of the negotiations, Bougeant, Histoire du Traite de Westphalie, 
useful as being founded on D'Avaux, Memoires; Contarini, Relazione del con- 
gresso di Munster; Ogier, Journal du Congres de Munster (1643-47); and the Cor- 
respondencia diplomatica de los plenipotenciarios Espanoles en el congreso de 
Munster, 1643-164S (vols. 82-84 of the Colleccion de documentos ineditos). 



LECTURE 7. 



THE FRONDE AND THE TREATY OF THE PYRENEES. 

Richelieu on his deathbed (1642) named Mazarin his succcessor; six 
months later the child, Louis XIV. (b. 5 Sept., 1838), succeeded to the 
throne of France ; the Parlement of Paris declared Anne of Austria, 
the queen-mother, Regent ; she gave both power and affection to 
Mazarin; character and previous career of Mazarin (Giulio Mazarini, 
b. 1602; entered the French service and became cardinal, 1639). 

Mazarin followed accurately Richelieu's foreign policy; during his 
administration Conde and Turenne won their first victories and the 
Treaties of Westphalia were signed. 

What France gained by the Treaties of Westphalia: a foothold on the 
Rhine by the annexation of Alsace, which also enabled her to surround 
the independent Duchy of Lorraine and the Spanish province, of 
Franche-Comte. 

Spain refused to make peace with France at Munster owing to the 
outbreak of the civil war known as the " Fronde." 

The nature of the Fronde : ' ' playing at civil war " ; its fruitlessness 
and intrigues ; the " importants " ; the Mazarinades. 

The Fronde, first phase (1648-49) : part played by the Parlement of 
Paris and the Parisians ; arrest of Broussel (26 Aug., 1648) ; the " bar- 
ricades ' ' ; Conde and the Court ; Conde and Mazarin ; the Peace of 
Rueil (11 March, 1649) ; flight of the Court from Paris; second phase 



The Treaty of the Pyrenees. 15 

(1650-51) : arrest of Conde (18 Jan., 1650) ; France invaded by Tu- 
renne with a Spanish army; the battle of Rethel (15 Dec., 1650) ; 
union of the "princely" and the "parliamentary" Frondes; the 
Cardinal de Retz (b. 1614, d. 1679) ; Mazarin in voluntary exile (6 
Feb. 165 1 ) ; third phase (1651-52): Conde's insurrection in the south ; 
return of Mazarin (Dec, 1651) ; the royal party joined by Turenne ; 
battle of the Faubourg Saint- Antoine (2 July, 1652) ; Mazarin again in 
exile (19 Aug., 1652) ; fourth phase (1652-53) ; the king and the queen - 
mother once more in Paris (21 Oct., 1652) ; Conde welcomed by the 
Spaniards ; De Retz imprisoned ; Gaston of Orleans exiled to Blois ; 
final return of Mazarin (2 Feb., 1653) \ en d °f tne Fronde. 

Mazarin's foreign policy : the war with Spain pursued with vigor ; 
Turenne commanding the French and Conde the Spanish army ; Ma- 
zarin's alliance with Cromwell (3 March, 1657) ; the battle of the 
Dunes (14 June, 1658); capture of Dunkirk and advance on Brussels ; 
formation of the League of the Rhine (14 Aug., 1658) ; the new Em- 
peror, Leopold I. (elected 1657), bound by the terms of his capitulation 
not to send help to Spain. 

Negotiations for peace with Spain : Mazarin's hands freed by the 
death of Cromwell (3 Sept., 1658). 

The Treaty of the Pyrenees signed by Mazarin and Don Luis de Haro 
in the Isle of Pheasants (7 Nov., 1659). 

Its terms : (1) France received Roussillon, Artois, and parts of Flan- 
ders, Hainault and Luxemburg. 

(2) Spain abandoned all claims to Alsace. 

(3) Charles IV., Duke of Lorraine, was to cede the Barrois and cer- 
tain towns to France, but to recover Lorraine, in which all the for- 
tresses were to be dismantled; (Charles IV. did not accept these condi- 
tions, and by a later treaty (28 Feb., 1661) received back the Barrois as 
a fief of France, ceded the towns mentioned in the Treaty of Pyrenees 
and others to France, and agreed to dismantle Nancy). 

(4) The Prince de Conde was to be forgiven and reinstated. 

(5) France abandoned the King of Portugal. 

(6) Louis XIV. was to marry Maria Theresa, elder daughter of 
Philip IV. , King of Spain : she was to renounce forever, for herself and 
her descendants, all rights of succession to the throne of Spain, on pay- 
ment of a dowry of 500,000 crowns. 



1 6 Mazarin. 

Importance of the Treaty of the Pyrenees as the supplement to the 
Treaties of Westphalia. 

Marriage of Louis XIV. to the Infanta (9 June, 1660). 

Death of Mazarin (9 March, 1661) ; success of his foreign policy ; his 
internal policy ; neglect of the finances ; destruction of feudal castles in 
France. 

Iyife and work of Saint Vincent de Paul (1576-1660). 

Authorities : The best secondary histories, founded on documents, for the 
administration of Mazarin are Cheruel, Histoire de la France pendant la minorite 
de Louis XIV., 4 vols., and Histoire de la France sous le ministere de Mazarin, 3 
vols. ; Perkins, France under Richelieu and Mazarin ; Comte de Cosnac, Mazarin 
et Colbert ; Bazin, Histoire de France sous le ministere du Cardinal Mazarin ; 
Gaillardiu, Histoire du regne de Louis XIV., vols. 1, 2 ; Comte de Sainte-Aulaire, 
Histoire de la Fronde, 2 vols. ; Due d' Aumdle, Histoire des Princes de Conde, 
vols. 5, 6, 7 ; Victor Cousin, La jeunesse de Mazarin, Madame de Longueville, 2 
vols., Madame de Sable, Madame de Chevreuse and Madame de Hautefort ; Cur- 
nier, Le Cardinal de Retz et son temps; Chantelauze, Louis XIV. et Marie Mancini, 
Le Cardinal de Retz et l'affaire du chapeau, and Saint Vincent de Paul et les 
Gondi; Perey, Louis XIV. et Marie Mancini; Cherot, La premiere jeunesse de Louis 
XIV.; Renee, Les nieces de Mazarin; Valfrey, Hugues de Lionne ; Vast, Les grands 
traites du regne de Louis XIV. ; Barante, Vie de Mathieu Mole ; Feittet, La Misere 
au temps de la Fronde ; Loth, Saint Vincent de Paul et sa mission sociale ; Em- 
manuel de Broglie, Saint Vincent de Paul ; Bourelly, Cromwell et Mazarin, and 
Le marechal de Fabert ; and Tessier, Le Chevalier de Jant et les relations de la 
France avec le Portugal au temps de Mazarin. Several volumes have been pub- 
lished on the local history of the Fronde, among which may be noted Saint-Marc, 
Bordeaux sous la Fronde, Debidour, La Fronde angevine, Audiat, La Fronde en 
Saintonge, and Salomon, La Fronde en Bretagne. The chief primary authority 
is the collection, ed. by Cheruel, of the Lettres du Cardinal Mazarin pendant son 
ministere, 8 vols., in the Documents in edits ; and use maybe made of Ttirenne, 
Correspondance inedite avec Le Tellier et Louvois, ed. Barthelemy ; Estrades, Am- 
bassades et negotiations en Italie, en Angleterre, et en Hollande depuis 1637 jusqu'en 
1662 ; Moreau, Choix de Mazarinades. 2 vols.; the Journal of Olivier Lefevre d'Or- 
messon ; and the Lettres of Gui Patin : for the period of the Fronde there are 
many interesting personal memoirs, to be used with caution, among which may be 
noted the Memoires of Madame de Motteville,Omer Talon, Gourville, Mademoiselle 
de Montpensier, Montglat, Brienne, Guy Joly, Mathieu Mole, Fontenay-Mareuil, 
La Rochefoucauld, and above all, those of Cardinal de Retz, with the addition of 
the Historiettes of Tallemant des Reaux, and Loret, La Muze Historique, ed. Ra- 
venel and La Pelouze. 



France. 17 

LECTURE 8. 



EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE OF THE 17TH CENTURY. 



I. FRANCE. 



Importance of the study of the history of France in the 17 th century 
rests on the fact that, during the Age of Louis XIV., its institutions 
were copied all over Europe, while its foreign policy was the keynote 
of political history; it was France which led the way to strong central 
government at home, supported by standing armies, and the adoption 
of foreign alliances independent of religious considerations. 

Government of France as moulded by Richelieu and Mazarin for the 
use of Louis XIV. 

i. The Monarchy: growth of its powers; its strength; the Court. 
ii. The Nobility: blows dealt by Richelieu; tendency to become 
a caste; distinction between grande and petite noblesse; sur- 
vival of privilege. 
Hi. The Church in France: its struggle with the Huguenots; con- 
trast between Gallican and Ultramontane ideas. 
iv. The Central Administration: its strengthening, the great aim 

of the French monarchy; creation of the "intendants." 
v. Local Administration : distinction between pays d' election 
and pays d'Etats ; the provincial Estates ; the cities and 
towns; privileges of the municipalities; the "Bourgeoisie." 
vi. The Judicial Administration: the Parlement of Paris having 
jurisdiction, and being court of appeals in criminal matters, 
over half of France; the seven provincial Parlements of Bor- 
deaux, Dijon, Rennes, Rouen, Toulouse, Aix and Grenoble; 
Louis XIII. created two at Pau (1620) and at Metz (1633), 
and Louis XIV. two more at Tournai (1668), moved to 
Douai (1713), and at Besancon (1676); the " Noblesse de la 
Robe"; the strength of the bar; the pays du droit coutumier 
and the pays du droit ecrit. 



1 8 France. 

vii. The Financial Administration: the farmers-general; the taille, 

the gabelle, the aides, the douanes. 
viii. Manufactures and Commerce: L,yons, Marseilles, Bordeaux, 
Dieppe and L,e Havre; the guilds; the ouvriers. 
ix. Agriculture: the seigneur, the farmer and the peasant; grande 
culture and petite culture; " copyhold " tenure and its relics 
of feudalism ; ' ' noble land. ' ' 
x. The condition of the poor : hospitals ; charitj^. 
xi. Material condition : roads and canals ; public works. 
xii. Intellectual condition : education ; colleges and village 
schools ; the Academie Francaise (1635) ; provincial acade- 
mies ; the press, pamphlets and newspapers ; foundation of 
the Gazette by Renaudot (1631). 
xiii. The army and navy: their organization; their control concen- 
trated in the hands of the monarchy. 
Position of France in Europe in the middle of the 17th century. 

i. Geographical conditions : additions made by Richelieu and 
Mazarin ; desire for a defensible frontier ; boundaries of lan- 
guage and race disregarded ; Alsace ; independence of Lor- 
raine ; Franche-Comte subject to Spain and Avignon to the 
Pope. 
ii. Growth of political tradition : the Foreign Office ; the diplo- 
matists. 
Extra-European expansion of France. 

i. New France : Canada and Acadia ; efforts at colonization. 
ii. The French Antilles: their importance to France. 
Hi. The French East India Company of Richelieu (1640) : Mada- 
gascar. 
Strength and weakness of France in the 17th century. 

Authorities : The chapters on the condition of France in the secondary his- 
tories, noted under Lectures 2, 4 and 7, and especially in Hanotaux, Histoire du 
Cardinal de Richelieu, vol. i., in Georges d'Avenel, Richelieu et lamonarchie abso- 
lue, and Cheruel, Histoire de la France pendant la minorite de Louis XIV., and 
Histoire de la France sous le ministere de Mazarin. See also Cheruel, Histoire de 
l'administration monarchique en France, 2 vols. ; Dareste, Histoire de l'adminis- 
tration et des progres du pouvoir royal en France ; Caillet, L'administration en 



The Empire. 19 

France sous le ministere de Riehelieu ; Gasquet, Precis des institutions politiques 
et sociales de l'ancienne France ; Lugay, Les origines du pouvoir ministerial en 
France : les Secretaires d'etat depuis leur institution jusqu'a. la mort de Louis 
XV.; Hanotaux, Origine de 1' institution des intendants des provinces; Bastatd 
d'Estang, Les parlements de France ; Nervo, Les finances francaises, 2 vols. ; 
Clamageran, Histoire de l'impot en France, 3 vols. ; Fagniez, L'economie sociale 
de la France sous Henri IV. ; Levasseur, Histoire des classes ouvrieres en France, 
2 vols. ; Dareste, Histoire des classes agricoles en France ; Susane, Histoire de 
l'ancienne infanterie francaise, 8 vols., and Histoire de la cavalerie francaise, 3 
vols. ; Guerin, Histoire maritime de la France, 6 vols. ; Gougeard, La marine de 
guerre sous Richelieu et Colbert ; Gilles de la Tourette, Theophraste Renaudot ; 
Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World ; Boyer-Peyreleau, Les Antilles 
francaises ; Dessalles, Histoire generate des Antilles ; Bonassieux, Les grandes 
compagnies de commerce, and Castonnet des Fosses, L'Inde francaise avant 
Dupleix. 



LECTURE 9, 



EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE OF THE 17TH CENTURY. 



2. The; empire, the; house; oe Austria, and the German princes. 

The Holy Roman Empire, in its inception the lay authority ruling 
Western Europe in conjunction with the Papacy, became towards the 
close of the Middle Ages the ruling power in Germany, and by the 
Treaties of Westphalia lost even that function. 

The form, precedence and tradition of the Empire remained the only 
symbol of German unity, and the different states and categories of 
states of the Empire must be regarded as independent political units, 
very loosely federated. 

There were about 360 sovereign princes in Germany and about 50 
free cities. 

The constitution of the Empire: (1) the elective Emperor; (2) the 
Imperial Diet comprising (i) the College of Electors, consisting of seven 
members; (ii) the College of Princes, consisting of about one hundred 
voices (some princes had more than one voice, e. g., Brandenburg six, 



20 The Hapsburg Dominions. 

Sweden four, etc., while the petty princes in Franconia and Swabia 
elected representatives, known as "collegiate" voices); (iii) the Col- 
lege of Free Cities; (3) the Imperial Chamber; (4) the Aulic Council; 
(5) the Circles. 

Distinction between immediate and mediate members of the Holy- 
Roman Empire. 

The Diet of Ratisbon declared perpetual (1663) and resident envoys 
took the place of Princes and Electors. 

The House of Hapsburg the most powerful in Germany from its 
hereditary dominions, more than from the repeated election of its head 
as Emperor; but its expansion was henceforth toward the east and not 
toward the west, and it gradually ceased to act chiefly for German 
interests. 

The dominions of the House of Hapsburg : 

(1) Austria proper, Styria, Carinthia, etc. [the Tyrol ceded by Fer- 
dinand II. to his brother (1623) reverted to the Austrian dominions 
(1665)]; their administration; the powers of the provincial Diets and 
extent of local self-government. 

(2) Bohemia: a home of Protestantism; its sufferings during the 
Thirty Years' War; deprivation of its local autonomy and attempts at 
Germanizing the Czechs. 

(3) Part of Hungary: divisions of the kingdom of St. Stephen at 
the commencement of the 17th century: 

(i) Transylvania : 2082 square miles : its diverse races, Magyar, 
German, Romanian, Slav, and its diverse religions, Roman 
Catholic, Lutheran, Calvinist and Greek Church; the reign 
and polic}' of Gabriel Bethlen (1613-29); George Rakoczy 
I. (1629-48); George Rakoczy II. (1648-60); spasmodic in- 
tervention in the Thirty Years' War; encouragement of 
Protestantism; wary policy needed for maintenance of inde- 
pendence. 

(ii) Turkish Hungary: 1859 square miles : its condition under 
Turkish rule. 

(iii) Hapsburg Hungary, governed by the Palatine : 1222 square 
miles : the power of the Diet ; progress of the Counter- Re- 
formation ; the work of Cardinal Pazmany (primate 1616- 



Germany. 2 1 

37); national policy of Nicholas Esterhazy (palatine 1625- 
45); Peace of L,inz (1645), recognizing the rights of Protes- 
tants. 
Administration of the hereditary dominions of the House of Austria: 
the councils at Vienna; the army and foreign politics; the influence of 
the Jesuits. 

The ecclesiastical electorates: Mayence, Cologne and Treves. 
The lay electorates: 

(1) Saxony: its condition at the Treaties of Westphalia; its wealth 
and compactness; the Elector the recognized chief of the German Pro- 
testants; policy of John George I. (1611-1656); the ambitions of Sax- 
ony turn eastward. 

(2) Brandenburg: the Elector John Sigismund recognized as Duke 
of Prussia (1618), as a feudatory of Poland; the claims on Pomerania 
and Juliers-Cleves ; the policy of George William, brother-in-law of 
Gustavus Adolphus, during the Thirty Years' War; accession of the 
Great Elector (1640); compensation for Pomerania and settlement of 
fuliers-Cleves case (1666) gave Brandenburg an increased German 
interest; Brandenburg's advantages from the Northern War (1656-60). 

(3) Bavaria: the Elector Maximilian (1 596-1 651) and the Counter- 
Reformation; his part in the Thirty Years' War. 

(4) The Palatinate: importance of its position on the Rhine with 
regard to France. 

The lay princes of the Empire: their varying power; introduction of 
primogeniture in 16th and 17th centuries; its effects; their love of 
independence. 

The ecclesiastical princes of the Empire: the Catholic and Protestant 
bishoprics; their chapters take the place of provincial Estates or Diets 
and make their government oligarchical. 

The free cities of the Empire: their decline during the Thirty Years' 
War; decay of the Hanseatic League; only Hamburg, Bremen and 
Liibeck renew the League (1630); trade passes to the Dutch and the 
English. 

The knights of the Empire: their dependence on the Emperor. 

General character of the administration in Germany: the provincial 
Diets; tendency to imitate France. 



22 The Netherlands. 

Depopulation and misery caused by trie Thirty Years' War; poverty 
of Germany. 

Intellectual condition: the foundation of universities and academies. 

Authorities : Among books in English may be noted Leger, Autriche-Hongrie, 
translated by Mrs. Birkbeck Hill, Coxe, History of the House of Austria, 4 vols., 
and Vehse, Memoirs of the Court, Aristocracy and Diplomacy of Austria, 2 vols., for 
Austria; Tuttle, History of Prussia, vol. i., and Carlyle, History of Frederick the 
Great, vol. i., for Prussia; and Putter, Historische Entwickelung der heutigen 
Staatsverfassung des deutschen Reichs, translated by Dornford, vol. 2, for the 
Holy Roman Empire. All histories, whether of the Empire or of separate states, 
give a general review of the condition of Germany at the time of the Treaties of 
Westphalia, but special reference may be made to Erdmannsdorffer , Deutsche 
Geschichte, 1648-1740, vol. i., Biedermann, Deutschlands triibste Zeit, oder Der 
dreissigjahrige Krieg in seine Folgen fur den deutsche Cultureleben and Hanser 
Deutschland nach dem dreissigjahrige Kriege. 



LECTURE 10. 



EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE OE THE 17TH CENTURY. 



3. THE NETHERLANDS. 

The situation of the Netherlands at the beginning of the century : 
the Protestant Netherlands, the seven United Provinces of Holland, 
Zealand, Gelderland, Friesland, Utrecht, Groningen and Overyssel, had 
practically secured their independence ; the Catholic Netherlands (now 
Belgium) were governed by the Infanta Isabella (1599-1633)^0 whom 
they had been granted as dowry by Philip II. 

The constitution of the United Provinces : difference in character of 
the seven provinces ; their local independence ; the provincial Estates ; 
the weak federal power of the States- General, consisting of one vote for 
each province ; the Council of State of twelve members, three for Hol- 
land, two each for Zealand. Friesland and Gelderland, and one each for 
the remaining provinces, with two votes for the Captain-General and Ad- 



The Netherlands. 



23 



miral-General ; the executive authority in each province was held by the 
Stadtholder of the province ; the executive authority of the Union was 
held by the Captain- and Admiral- General. 

William the Silent, Prince of Orange, had been Stadtholder of three 
provinces, as well as Captain- and Admiral- General ; his son Maurice 
(1585-1625) was Stadtholder of five provinces, and after 1620 of all the 
provinces but Friesland, as well as Captain- and Admiral- General. 

The two parties in the Protestant Netherlands : the supporters of the 
Stadtholder, Maurice of Nassau (b. 1567), and the republicans led by 
John van Olden Barneveldt (b. 1547), Advocate of the province of Hol- 
land ; the strength of the former among the country gentlemen, noble- 
men and peasants ; of the latter among the burghers of the cities, and 
especially of Amsterdam ; the former was the war and the latter the 
peace party. 

The war of independence with Spain closed by a twelve years' truce, 
negotiated by Henry IV. of France (1609). 

The political struggle combined with a religious difference : the Ar- 
minians, or Remonstrants, against the Gomarists, or Calvinists ; the 
Synod of Dort condemned the Arminians (161 8) ; execution of Barne- 
veldt (19 May, 1619) ; the province of Holland forced to ask the confir- 
mation by the Stadtholder of the election of its Pensionary, the leading 
civil officer. 

The end of the truce (1621) : part played by the Dutch in the Thirty 
Years' War ; Maurice and his brother, Frederick Henry (1625-1647), 
the Stadtholders, occupied Cleves and resisted Spanish invasion ; great- 
ness of Frederick Henry ; his son married to Mary, daughter of Charles 
I. of England, and his daughter to Frederick William, the Great Elec- 
tor of Brandenburg. 

The Catholic Netherlands under Isabella remained contented with 
their local government and in comparative tranquility, but when France 
joined in the Thirty Years' War, Artois was occupied, and, after Maz- 
arin's treaty with Cromwell, the English and French conquered nearly 
up to Brussels ; by the Treaty of the Pyrenees, Artois was ceded to 
France ("1659). 

By the Treaty of Miinster (30 Jan., 1648) with Spain, the Dutch 
promised to support the Spanish rights to the Catholic Netherlands in 



24 The Dutch. 

return for closing the Scheldt to commerce ; by this means the United 
Provinces secured a buffer against France, and Amsterdam secured 
commercial supremacy at the expense of Antwerp. 

William II. (b. 1626), elected Stadtholder of all the provinces but 
Friesland (1647), disapproved of the reduction of the army as a result 
of peace ; he resolved on a coup d'etat ; attempt to seize Amsterdam 
(30 July, 1650); death of William II. (6 Nov., 1650); birth of William 
III. (14 Nov., 1650; ; the offices of Captain- and Admiral-General abol- 
ished ; the Stadtholderate of five provinces left vacant ; William Fred- 
erick of Nassau, Stadtholder of Friesland, obtained the Stadtholderate 
of Groningen ; government divided between the States-General and 
the provincial Estates ; election of John de Witt (b. 1625) as Pension- 
ary of Holland (1653) in the place of Adrian de Pauw ; the province 
of Holland and John de Witt took the direction of Dutch policy. 

War between England and the United Provinces (1652-54) owing to 
the Navigation Act passed by the English Parliament and aimed at the 
Dutch carrying trade ; act excluding William III. forever from the 
Stadtholderate of Holland passed at the wish of Cromwell (1654) ; 
repealed (1661) ; Perpetual Edict abolishing the Stadtholderate in Hol- 
land and Utrecht (1667). 

The prosperity of the Dutch in the first half of the 17th century : 
their naval and commercial monopoly; its causes ; its political, social 
and material effects. 

The Dutch in Asia : the first voyage of Houtman (1596); they seize 
the spice and pepper trade ; foundation of Batavia (1619); rivalry with 
the English ; massacre of Amboyna (1623) ; expulsion of the Portu- 
guese ; settlements at the Cape of Good Hope and in India, Ceylon, 
the Spice Islands, China and Japan. 

The Dutch in South America : their establishment in Brazil (1624- 
37) ; the government and great views of John Maurice of Nassau- 
Siegen (b. 1604, in Brazil 1637-44, d. 1679); their expulsion by the 
Portuguese (1655). 

The Dutch in North America : foundation of New Amsterdam ; the 
New Netherlands and the emigration thither. 

Contrast between the Protestant and the Catholic Netherlands. 

Authorities : Motley, History of the United Netherlands, vols. 3 and 4, and 



Sweden. 25 

Life and Death of John of Barneveldt, 2 vols.; Wenzelburger, Geschichte der 
Niederlande, (t-> 1648); Kervyn de Lettenhove, La Flandre pendant les trois derniers 
siecles, 3 vols.; Groen van Prinsterer, Archives ou correspondance inedite de la 
maison d' Orange-Nassau, 6 vols. ; A. Waddington, La Republique des Provinces- 
Unies, la France et les Pays-Bas espagnols de 1630 a 1650 ; Van der Capellen, Ge- 
denkschriften ; Lefevre-Pontalis, Jean de Witt, translated into English ; Combes, 
Correspondance Francaise du grand pensionnaire Jean de Witt ; Geddes, History 
of the Administration of John de Witt, vol. i. ; Meinsma, Geschiedenis van de 
Nederlandsche Oost-Indische Bezittingen, 2 vols.; De Jonge, De Opkomst van het 
Nederlandsch Gezag in Oost-Indie, 14 vols., and the documents published by 
Aitzema and Sylvius, and by the Utrecht Historical Society. 



LECTURE 11. 



EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE OF THE 17TH CENTURY. 



4. SWEDEN AND DENMARK. 

Sweden at the commencement of the 17th century: it had been sepa- 
rated from Denmark and Norway by the valour of Gustavus Vasa (1523); 
the Reformation in Sweden; the people became sturdy Protestants; 
reigns of Eric XIV. (1560-68) and John III. (1568-92); expulsion of 
the son of John III., Sigismund Vasa, who had been elected King of 
Poland (1587), on account of his Catholicism, and election of Charles 
IX., youngest son of Gustavus Vasa (1598); reign of Charles IX. 
(1598-1611), a reign of perpetual war with the Danes, Poles and 
Russians. 

Accession of Gustavus Adolphus (b. 1594), son of Charles IX. Ci6n): 
his vigor and military skill; he defeated the Danes and forced them to 
make peace at Knarod (1613); his campaigns against the Russians; by 
the Treaty of Stolbovo (16 17) he restored Novgorod, but retained Fin- 
land, Carelia, Ingria and Esthonia; his marriage to Maria Eleanor, 
sister of the Elector George William of Brandenburg (1620); his wars 
with his cousin, Sigismund, of Poland, whom he defeated both on sea 



26 Sweden. 

and land (1621-29); by the Truce of Altmark (16 Sept., 1629), Sweden 
kept Livonia; Gustavus Adolphus then resolved to intervene in the 
Thirty Years' War. 

The constitution of Sweden: the restrictions on the royal authority; 
the royal title — "elected king and hereditary prince"; the Diet (Riks- 
dag); its four orders — nobility, clergy, bourgeoisie, peasants; its pre- 
rogatives fixed (1617); the Senate (Riksrad); its composition and 
functions. 

The position acquired by Sweden by the Treaties of Westphalia: the 
chief territorial power on the Baltic, as ruler of Finland, Carelia, Ingria, 
Esthonia, Livonia and Western Pomerania, with an outlet on the North 
Sea as possessor of Bremen and Verden; she controlled the mouths of 
the Blbe, the Weser and the Oder, but her own southern provinces 
were occupied by Denmark. 

Sweden recognized as the chief military power in Europe. 

The Chancellor, Axel Oxenstiern (b. 1583, d. 1654): his policy; his 
organization of the Swedish monarchy on an oligarchical basis; the 
material condition of Sweden; its sturdy Lutheranism. 

The reign of Queen Christina (b. 1626), only child of Gustavus Adol- 
phus (1634-54): her assumption of the direction of affairs (1644) on the 
outbreak of war with Denmark; the Treaty of Bromsebro (13 Aug., 
1645); her influence in favor of peace in the negotiations at Osnabriick; 
her internal government; abdication in favor of her cousin, Charles 
Gustavus of Deux-Ponts or Zweibrticken (6 June, 1654); her fondness 
for literature and science; her later life; she became a Catholic (1655), 
and died at Rome (19 April, 1689"). 

The reign of Charles X. (b. 1622): as a soldier he desired to utilize 
the Swedish army; his conquest of Poland (1656); previous relations be- 
tween Poland and Sweden; the conduct of the Great Elector; Charles X. 
attacked Denmark (1657), and by the Treaty of Rbskild (7 March, 1658) 
obtained the Danish provinces in Sweden, namely, Halland and Scania, 
with the island of Bbrnholm; his proposal to divide Denmark, and attack 
on Copenhagen (1659); interference of the Dutch and other powers; 
death of Charles X. (23 Feb., 1660). 

Accession of Charles XL (b. 1655): regency of the queen-mother, 
Hedwiga of Holstein-Gottorp; the war closed, owing to the mediation 



Denmark. 27 

of the powers, by the Treaty of Oliva with Poland, by which Poland 
ceded Lithuanian L,ivonia to Sweden and John Casimir resigned his 
claims to the Swedish throne r 3 May, 1660), by the Treaty of Copen- 
hagen with Denmark, confirn Kg that of Roskild (7 June, 1660), and 
by that of Kardis with Russia C T j uly, 1661), confirming the cession to 
Sweden of Ingria and Carelia. 

Position of the kingdom of Denmark and Norway at the Treaties of 
Westphalia : it included the southern provinces of Sweden, and thus 
controlled the commerce of the Baltic ; relations with the Kmpire ow- 
ing to the connection with Schleswig and Holstein. 

The aristocratic constitution of Denmark ; the monarchy elective ; 
all power in the hands of the Senate (Rigsraad) ; the Diet (Rigsdaagj 
never called ; the peasants reduced to serfdom. 

The rivalry between Denmark and Sweden the keynote of Danish 
foreign policy : the reign of Christian IV. (1588-1648); his court ; his 
fondness for Norway and foundation of Christiania ; his misfortunes 
during the Thirty Years' War ; foundation of the Danish East India 
Company (16 15) and occupation of Tranquebar in India. 

The reign of Frederick III. (1648-70) : the government of Ulfeldt 
and the nobles ; Ulfeldt joined Charles X. of Sweden and induced him 
to attack Denmark ; Denmark's losses by the Treaty of Roskild. 

The Revolution of 1660 : overthrow of the power of the nobles ; the 
monarchy of Denmark made hereditary and absolute ; regular meet- 
ings of the Diet or States- General promised, but it was never called ; 
resumption of lands granted to noblemen ; improvement in adminis- 
tration. 

The Germanizing of Denmark ; the situation in Norway ; its pov- 
erty and hatred for Sweden. 

The supremacy of the Baltic moved from Denmark to Sweden. 

Authorities : As small books see Otte, Scandinavian History; Bain, Christina, 
Queen of Sweden, and Gejfroy, Les Etats Scandinaves. Among secondary au- 
thorities consult the large general history by Fryxell (not translated); Carlson, 
Geschichte Schwedens, vols. 5, 6, translated and continued from Geijer ; Cron- 
holm, Sveriges Historie under Gustaf II. Adolphs Regering, 6 vols, (not trans- 
lated); Gratcert, Christina, Konigin von Schweden, und ihr Hof, 2 vols.; Arcken- 
holtz, Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de la reine Christine, 4 vols.; Haumant, 



28 Russia. 

La Guerre du Nord (1655-60); Allen, Histoire de Danemark, and Spittler, Ge- 
schichte der Danischen Revolution im Jahre 1660, being vol. 5 of his Sammtliche 
Werke. 



LECTURE 12. 



EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE OF THE 17TH CENTURY. 



5. RUSSIA AND POLAND. 

The contrast between the Slavs of the Greek Church in Russia, and 
the Slavs of the Roman Church in Poland, the former being essentially- 
Asiatic, and the latter essentially European. 

The backwardness of Russia and its Asiatic character due to histor- 
ical circumstances, but chiefly to the conquest by the Mongol hordes, 
and its derivation of Christianity from Constantinople. 

The epic character of the great struggle with the Mongols, and its 
effect in forming the Russian people. 

The reign of Ivan the Terrible (1533-84) marked the emergence of 
Moscow as the centre from which the Russian Empire was to grow ; he 
took the title of Tsar (1547) ; his wars with the Tartars on the south 
and east, and with the Poles and Lithuanians and Livonians on the 
west and northwest ; his endeavors to reach the Baltic ; his relations 
with the powers of western Europe, and especially with Elizabeth of 
England ; opening up of trade between Russia and England by way of 
the White Sea and Archangel ; the Muscovy Company ; invasion of 
Siberia ; the government of Ivan the Terrible ; his autocracy ; his 
struggles with the nobility ; his " States-General "; his personality. 

Russian history in the 17th century, until the time of Peter the Great, 
a commentary on the aims and ideals of Ivan the Terrible. 

The reign of Feodor Ivanovitch (1584-98): institution of serfdom 
(1597) and creation of the patriarchate of Moscow (1589); the reign of 
Boris Godiinov (1598-1605); the first and second "false" Dimitri ; 
civil war and anarchy; the " troublous times " ; the Poles at Moscow 
(1612); election of Michael Romanov as Tsar (1613) by the States 
General. 



Poland. 29 

The reign of Michael Romanov (1613-45): restoration of internal 
peace and tranquility; his wars with the Swedes (1613-17}, and with 
the Poles (1613-19, 1632-35); moral and material condition of Russia. 

The reign of Alexis Romanov (1645-76): autocracy legalized ; the 
boyars ; the code of Alexis ; Nikon's reform of the Russian liturgy ; 
popular risings ; Stenka Razin (1666-71); the Cossacks. 

The insurrection of the inhabitants of little Russia and the Cossacks 
against Poland under Bogdan Khmelnitzski (1648); his dream of an 
independent Cossack state; Cossacks declared themselves subjects of 
the Tsar (1654); importance of this act; death of Khmelnitzski (1657); 
war with Poland; by Truce of Androussovo (1667) Russia obtained the 
left bank of the Dnieper as its frontier, with Kiev and Smolensk on the 
right bank. 

The condition of Poland in the 17th century: the turbulence of the 
nobles; the pacta conventa; the right of confederation; the " liberum 
veto " first employed by a single individual to check legislation (1652); 
the work of the Jesuits; the Counter- Reformation; intensity of religious 
bitterness between the Roman Catholics of Poland and the Greek 
Catholics of Lithuania. 

The most notable events since the Union of Lublin (1569) uniting 
Poland and Lithuania; contrast between Poland and Lithuania; the 
death of the last of the Jagellons, hereditary Grand Dukes of Lithuania 
(1572); election to the throne of Poland thrown open; contest between 
the Lithuanian party, looking to Russia, and the Polish party, looking 
to Austria; the secularization of Prussia by Albert of Hohenzollern, 
Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, as a fief of Poland (1525); the 
suppression of the Knights of the Sword (1561), yielding Riga to 
Sweden, Livonia to Poland, and making Kettler, the last Grand 
Master, Duke of Courland, as a feudatory of Poland. 

The reign of Sigismund III., Vasa (1587-1632): his Catholicism; 
expelled from the throne of Sweden (1598); his wars with Sweden, 
Russia and the Turks ; granted Ducal Prussia to the Elector of 
Brandenburg as a fief (16 18); his war with Gustavus Adolphus of 
Sweden (1621-29) and numerous defeats; the "Union" (1595); a third 
party, the "uniates", thus added to the religious strife; the reign of 
Ladislas IV. (VII.), Vasa (1632-48); Poland during the Thirty Years' 
War. 



30 The Turks. 

The reign of Cardinal John Casimir Vasa (1648-68): his wars with 
Sweden and Russia; by the Treaty of Wehlau (24 Sept., 1657) the 
Elector of Brandenburg recognized as independent Duke of Prussia, 
free from the suzerainty of Poland; the insurrection of Bogdan Khmel- 
uitzski; the Truce of Androussovo; abdication of John Casimir (1668); 
he died at Paris (1672). 

In the middle of the 17th century Russia is growing politically 
stronger from her concentrated autocracy and Poland politically weaker 
from her anarchic constitution. 

Authorities : Morfill, Story of Russia, and Story of Poland; Rambatid, Histoire 
de la Russie, translated by L. B. Lang, 2 vols. ; Karamzine, Histoire de l'empire 
de Russie, translated from the Russian, n vols.; Merimee, Les faux Demetrius, 
and Les Cosaques d' autrefois : Bogdan Chmielnicki; Chodzko, La Pologne histo- 
rique et monumentale; Salvandy, Histoire de Pologne avant et sous le Roi Jean 
Sobieski, 3 vols. 



LECTURE 13. 



EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE OF THE 17TH CENTURY. 



6. THE OTTOMAN TURKS- 

The extent of Islam at the commencement of the 17th century: origin 
of the Turks, 

The Ottoman Turks at the height of their power in the 16th century: 
Sulaiman the Magnificent (1520-66); the European possessions of the 
Turks; their northern capital at Buda, in Hungary; their control of 
the Levant; blow dealt to them by the loss of the passage of the 
Asiatic trade through Egypt; Venice induced the Turks to oppose the 
Portuguese in Asia ; their power in Northern Africa and in the Medi- 
terranean; the Barbary Corsairs. 

Organization of the Turkish power: the Sultan as Caliph; the Ule- 
mas; the Janissaries. 

Resistance of the Knights of St. John: the defense of Malta ( 1565). 



The Turks. 31 

Attitude of Europe towards the Turks: spasmodic attempts of the 
Popes to stir up Christendom against them; the battle of Depanto (7 
Oct., 1571); the alliance with France; the "capitulations"; the Eng- 
lish Levant Company obtained similar privileges (1580); and the Dutch 
traders (1612). 

Poland and Hungary the bulwarks of Christendom against the Turks 
the Turkish suzerainty over the Danubian Provinces and Transylvania 
the religious attitude of the Turks: the Greek Church and the Turks 
their welcome of renegades. 

Fortunately for Christian Europe during the critical period of the 
Wars of Religion and the Thirty Years' War, the Turks remained 
quiet; the Sultans degenerated in character; and between the death of 
Sulaiman the Magnificent (1566) and the accession of Muhammad 
Kiuprili to power (1656) their only conquests were Cyprus, taken 
(1571) and Tunis retaken (1574); causes of this sudden degeneracy. 

The Janissaries became Sultan-makers; they were permitted to marry 
and the tax of Christian children ceased. 

Internal dissensions marked the reign of Muhammad III. (1595- 
1603): Ahmad I. (1603-17): by the Truce of Komorn with the Emperor 
(11 Nov., 1606) the Sultan renounced his claim to tribute from the 
Emperor, and his exclusive suzerainty over Transylvania ; treaties with 
England and the United Provinces, and war with Persia ; the imbecil- 
ity of Mustapha I. (161 7-18, 1622-23); the reign of Othman II. 
(1618-22) and his murder. 

Murad IV. (1623-40): his capture of Bagdad (25 Dec, 1638); his 
cruelty ; execution of the Grand Mufti (1634), and of the Patriarch of 
Constantinople (1636); Ibrahim I. (1640-48); recapture of Azov (1642); 
attack on Candia in Crete (1645); his order to murder all Christians ; 
assassinated by the Janissaries; accession of Muhammad IV. (1648;; 
troubles during his minority. 

Appointment of Muhammad Kiuprili (b. 1585), a renegade Albanian, 
to be Grand Vizier with full powers (1656): his great reforms; he 
restored the force of the Ottoman Turks ; his internal policy ; the 
execution of the Greek Patriarch ; his foreign policy ; his victories over 
the Venetians and the Cossacks : new feudatory princes appointed in 
Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia ; his death (1661). 



32 The Turks. 

Ahmad Kiuprili (b. 1626) appointed Grand Vizier, (1662): he ravaged 
Transylvania (1661), invaded Hungary (1663) and prepared to march 
on Vienna ; the Emperor Leopold resolved to resist the Turks and 
called for the help of Christendom ; the Diet of the Empire agreed, and 
Louis XIV. sent 6,000 Frenchmen ; Montecuccoli (b. 1608, d. 1680) de- 
feated the Turks at the battle of Saint-Gothard (1 Aug., 1664) and 
saved Vienna; the Truce of Vasvar (10 Aug., 1664); Michael Apafy 
recognized as Prince of Transylvania by both Emperor and Sultan, but 
to pay tribute to the latter ; the seven provinces of Hungary left as 
before, three to the Emperor and four to the Sultan. 

The siege of Candia; aid sent to the Venetians by Louis XIV.; sur- 
render of Morosini to Ahmad Kiuprili (27 Sept., 1669). 

The Cossacks called in the help of the Turks against Poland 
(1672); Ahmad Kiuprili took Kaminietz and conquered Podolia ; by 
the Treaty of Budziak or Buczac (18 Oct., 1672) Poland ceded Podolia 
and the Ukraine to the Turks and promised to pay tribute ; the treaty 
disavowed by the Polish Diet (1673); John Sobieski defeated the Turks 
at Choczim (10 Nov., 1673) and at Lemberg (24 Aug., 1675); by the 
Treaty of Zuravna (27 Oct., 1676) the Turks retained Kaminietz and 
Podolia, but gave up the Ukraine and the tribute ; death of Ahmad 
Kiuprili (30 Oct., 1676). 

The greatness of the Kiuprilis : the sudden resurrection of the Otto- 
man power ; its significance. 

Authorities : Creasy, History of the Ottoman Turks, and Stanley Lane-Poole, 
The Story of Turkey,and The Story of the Barbary Corsairs are readable books ; 
Ranke, Fiirsten und Volker von Stid-Europa ; die Osmanen und die spanische 
Monarchic im i6ten und I7ten Jahrhundert (vols. 35, 36 of his Sammtliche Werke) 
is more scientific; modern works are mainly based on Von Hammer, Geschichte des 
Osmanischen Reichs., 4 vols., translated into French as L'Histoire de l'Empire Ot- 
toman, 18 vols., and on Zinkeisen, Geschichte des osmanischen Reichs in Europa, 
7 vols. See also Naima, Annals of the Turkish Empire from 1591 to 1659, trans- 
lated from the Turkish by Fraser, Sir Thomas Roe, Negotiations (1621-28), Gon- 
taut-Biron, Ambassade en Turquie de Jean de Gontaut-Biron (1605-10), and Xen- 
opol, Histoire des Roumains de la Dacie Trajane. 



Italy. 33 

LECTURE 14. 



EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE OF THE 17TH CENTURY. 



7. ITAI^Y. 

Italy at the commencement of the 17th century : the idea of Italian 

unity preached by Dante and Machiavelli had been extinguished by the 

vitality of local life and local rivalries ; the Italians preferred local to 

national patriotism ; therefore Italy was largely ruled by foreign powers. 

The three prominent factors : 

i. The power of the Papacy represented more than the actual ex- 
tent of its dominions. 
ii. The great extent of Spanish power, comprising Sicily, Naples, 
Milan, Finale, the Tuscan presidios and Sardinia ; Spain and 
the Pope ruled two-thirds of Italy. 
iii. The growth of Savoy. 
The divisions of Italy and their relations to each other. 
I. The States of the Church consisted of the Patrimony of Saint 
Peter, and the surrounding districts ; of the duchy of Spoleto, including 
Perugia (1520) ; of the March of Ancona ( 1532) ; of the Romagna (1503) ; 
of Bologna (1513), and of Ferrara (1598), together with the duchies of 
Benevento and Ponte-Corvo, within the borders of Naples, and the city 
of Avignon and the county of the Venaissin, within the borders of 
France ; to these were added, during the 17th century, Urbino (1631) 
and Castro (1649). 

Alteration in the character of the Popes : they become more Italian 
and temporal in their aspirations ; their attitude towards European af- 
fairs ; their influence in Italy ; their nepotism ; their administration ; 
the Roman nobility ; the beautification of Rome. Clement VIII — Al- 
dobrandini — his anti-Spanish policy ; annexed Ferrara (1598) ; died 
1605 ; EeoXI. — Medici — 1605 ; Paul V. — Borghese — 1605-21 : his quar- 
rel with Venice ; Gregory XV. — Ludovisi — 1621-23 ; Urban VIII. — 
Barberini — 1623-44 : his anti-Spanish policy and friendship for Riche- 
lieu : his administration ; fortification of Rome ; annexation of Urbino 



34 Italy, 

(1631) ; war with Parma (1641-44) ; Innocent X. — Pamfili — 1644-55 : 
destruction of Castro (1649) ; his negotiations with Mazarin ; condemna- 
tion of Jansenism ; favoritism; Alexander VII. — Chigi — 1655-67: rise 
in power of the " Congregations"; the plague at Rome (1656) ; his 
quarrel with Louis XIV.; Avignon occupied by the French (1663-65); 
submission of the Pope. 

II. The Spanish dominions : 

i. Sicily : its feudal nobility ; the rising against Spain (1647) an d 
its suppression. 

ii. Naples : the government of the Spaniards ; Ossuna's attempt 
at revolt (1620) ; the tax on fruit imposed by Arcos ; the ris- 
ing of Masaniello (1647) ; action of the Due de Guise ; sup- 
pression of the insurrection (April, 1648). 

iii. The following ports and cities in Tuscany, known as the 
"presidios", occupied by Spain since 1555: Argentaro, 
Porto Krcole, Santo Stefano, Talamone, Orbitello, Piombino 
and Porto Longone. 

iv. Duchy of Milan : exactions of the Spanish government. 

v. Marquisate of Finale. 

vi. Sardinia. 

III. Grand Duchy of Tuscany : the later Medici ; the tranquil reign 
of Ferdinand II. (1620-70) ; his encouragement of science and art. 

IV. Duchy of Parma and Piacenza : government of the Farnesi ; the 
war with the Pope (1641-44, 46-49) about the Duchy of Castro. 

V. Duchy of Modena and Reggio : government of the Estensi ; their 
friendship for France ; their desire to recover Ferrara. 

VI. Duchy of Mantua and Montferrat : the war for the Mantuan 
Succession (1627) on the death of Vincent Gonzaga II.; the Em- 
peror and Spain supported the Duke of Guastalla ; Richelieu sup- 
ported Charles Gonzaga, Due de Nevers ; the city of Mantua sacked by 
the Imperialists (18 July, 1630) ; by the Treaty of Cherasco (1631) 
Charles was acknowledged as Duke, but Savoy obtained part of Mont- 
ferrat ; in return for its assistance, France was allowed to garrison 
Casale. 

VII. Duchy of Guastalla : Duke Ferdinand Gonzaga I. claimed Man- 
tua (1627) ; influence of Spain and the Emperor. 



Italy. 35 

VIII. Republic of Venice : the decline of its commerce ; its political 
importance in the Levant and in Italy ; the government of the Republic 
its internal policy ; its foreign policy ; the quarrel with Pope Paul V, 
Venice under an interdict (1606-07); Fra Paolo Sarpi (b. 1552, d. 1623) 
the conspiracy of Bed mar (1618) ; struggle with the Turks ; the war in 
Crete (1645-69). 

IX. Republic of Genoa : its weakness ; its troubles with Corsica ; 
wealth of its bankers ; its fidelity to Spain the cause of attacks and 
menaces by France and Savoy. 

X. Republic of L-ucca : its commercial prosperity. 

XL Duchy of Savoy : the importance of its position holding the 
passes of the Alps between France and Italy ; possession of Piedmont 
makes the dukes more Italian than French. 

Charles Emmanuel I. (1580-1630) ; at first a faithful ally of Philip II., 
whose daughter he had married ; ceded Bresse, Bugey and Gex to 
Henry IV. (1601) in exchange for Saluzzo ; Henry IV.'s dream of a 
kingdom of the Alps ; Charles Emmanuel declared for national inde- 
pendence of Italy against Spain; the Mantuan Succession (1627); 
Savoy obtained part of Montferrat (1631). 

Victor Amadeus I. (1630-37) : his alliance with France ; married to a 
daughter of Henry IV. ; by the treaty of Rivoli (1635) formed a league 
against Spain with Mantua and Parma ; cession of Pignerol to France. 

Charles Emmanuel II. (1638-75) ; regency of Maria Christina of 
France (1637-48) ; civil war (1639-42), the Regent being aided by 
France and the late king's brothers by Spain ; his policy ; persecution 
of the Vaudois ; schemes on Genoa ; the House of Savoy regarded Italy 
"as an artichoke to be eaten up leaf by leaf." 

Authorities: Among small books in English, or translated into English, 
may be noted Trollope, Paul the Pope and Paul the Friar; H. F. Brown, Venice ; 
Malleson, Studies from Genoese History ; and for Masaniello and Naples during 
this period, Von Reumont, The Carafas of Maddaloni ; Naples under Spanish Do- 
minion. Among secondary histories consult Botta, Storia dell' Italia, vols. 
5-8 ; Caniu, Storia degli Italiani ; Ranke, Die romischen Papste im i6ten und I7ten 
Jahrhundert, 3 toIs., translated by Austin, vol. 3 ; Brosch, Geschichte des Kirchen- 
staates, 2 vols. ; De Moiiy, D'Ambassade du Due de Crequi (1662-65), 2 vols. ; 
Giannone, Istoria civile del Regno di Napoli ; Hervey de Saint-Denis, Insurrection 
de Naples en 1647, translated from Rivas, 2 vols. ; Loiseleur, Mazarin et le Due de 



36 Spain. 

Guise in his Questions historiques du XVIF siecle ; Von Reumont, Geschichte Tos- 
canas unter die Medici, 2 vols. ; Cantil, Ragionamenti sulla Storia Lombarda del 
secolo XVII. ; Bianchi-Giovini, Biografia da Fra Paolo; Cornet, Paolo V e la republica 
Veneta (1605-7) ; Daru, Histoiie de Venise, vols, x-xiv ; Garzoni, Istoria della re- 
publica di Venezia ; Ricotti, Storia della monarchia piemontese ; Costa- Beauregard , 
Memoires historiques sur la Maison royale de Savoie, 4 vols. ; Belgiojoso, Histoire de 
la Maison de Savoie ; Baux, Histoire de la reunion a. la France des provinces de 
Bresse, Bugey, Gex; Carutti, Storia della diplomazia della corte di Savoia, 4 vols., and 
Claretta, Storia del regno di Carlo Emanuele II., 2 vols. The primary authori- 
ties are to be found in Muratori, Botero, the collections of official documents, 
and the Archivio Storico Italiano, while for the attempt of Guise on Naples may be 
noted Modene, Histoire des revolutions de la ville et du royaume de Naples, and 
Loiseleur and Baguenault de Puchesse, 1/ expedition du Due de Guise a. Naples, and 
for the quarrel between the Pope and Venice, Sarpi, Opere. 



LECTURE 15. 



EUROPE IN THE MIDDLE OF THE 17TH CENTURY. 



8. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 

The extent of the dominions of the Spanish Hapsburgs at the com- 
mencement of the 17th century : vSpain, Portugal, Sardinia, Naples, 
Sicily, the Milanese, Roussillon, Franche-Cotnte, the Catholic Nether- 
lands, Central and South America, the West Indies, the Philippine Is- 
lands and the various settlements of the Portuguese in Africa and Asia. 

The policy of Philip II. and its effect on the strength of Spain at 
home and abroad : Spain and the Catholic Church. 

The weakness of Spain at home : bad internal administration ; steril- 
izing effect of the wealth drawn from the colonies ; colonial adminis- 
stration. 

The weakness of Spain abroad : the war with England and the 
Protestant Netherlands ; the attitude of France and of the Empire. 

Yet the seeming power of Spain overshadowed Protestant Christen- 
dom : policy of Henry IV. of France, James I. and Charles I. of 
England, Richelieu, Mazarin and Cromwell toward Spain. 



Spain and Portugal. 37 

Reign of Philip III. (1598-162 1): the administration of the Duke of 
Lerma (1598-1618); his internal policy ; the expulsion of the Moriscoes 
(1609); his foreign policy ; peace with England (1604); truce with the 
Protestant Netherlands (1609) ; the French alliance and marriages 
(16 1 2) ; I^erma made a cardinal and dismissed (161 8); succeeded by 
his son, the Duke of Ucedo. 

Reign of Philip IV. (1621-65): administration of the Count-Duke 
Olivares (1621-43); Spain in the Thirty Years' War ; Spinola occupied 
the Palatinate (1621); renewal of war with the Dutch (1621); Spain 
struggled with France for supremacy in Northern Italy and was three 
times worsted, (1) in the affair of the Valtelline (1625), (2) in the Man- 
tuan Succession (1627-30), (3) in the Valtelline (1635); Richelieu's 
efforts to overthrow the power of Spain ; the revolt of Catalonia and of 
Portugal (1640) ; dismissal of Olivares (1643). 

Administration of Don L,uis de Haro (1643-65): defeat of the Span- 
iards at Rocroi (1643) ; and again at L,ens (1648) ; Spain recognized 
the independence of the Protestant Netherlands at Miinster (1648); 
Spain's attempts to take advantage of the Fronde in France ; Cromwell 
and Mazarin ; defeat of Spain ; conclusion of the Treaty of the Pyre- 
nees (7 Nov., 1659), by which Spain lost Roussillon and Artois ; mar- 
riage of Louis XIV. to Maria Theresa of Spain ; the question of the 
Spanish Succession ; death of Philip IV. (17 Sept., 1665). 

Condition of Portugal during the " Sixty Years' Captivity " to Spain 
(1580-1640); ruin of her commerce; loss of her monopoly of the 
Asiatic trade ; the Dutch seized the Spice Islands and established 
themselves in Brazil ; discontent felt in Portugal ; preparations for 
revolt ; negotiations with Richelieu. 

The Revolution of 1640 : the Duke of Braganza hailed as John IV.; 
independence of Portugal recognized by France and the Dutch ; help 
sent ; revolt of the Asiatic and African possessions and Brazil against 
Spain ; commencement of the War of Independence; difficulties of John 
IV.; his death (1656). 

Reign of Affonso VI. (1656-67): government of the queen-mother 
(1656-62); Schomberg (b. 1618, d. 1690) organized the Portuguese 
army ; by the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), Mazarin promised Spain 
to abandon his support of Portugal ; but he brought about the marriage 



38 France Under Louis XIV. and Colbert. 

of Charles II. of England with Catherine of Braganza (1662); impor- 
tance of the English alliance; administration of Castel Melhor (1662- 
67"); continuation of the War of Independence; victories of Schomberg; 
court revolution (1667); Dom Pedro declared Regent and Affonso VI. 
sent to the Azores; treaty of peace with Spain signed at Lisbon (13 Feb., 
1668) and the independence of Portugal recognized. 

Significance of the Revolution of 1640 : condition of Portugal and its 
importance as an ally of England. 

Authorities : As small books may be noted Dunham, History of Spain and 
Portugal, vols. 3, 4, which is old-fashioned but fairly correct for Spain, and Morse 
Stephens, Story of Portugal. As secondary authorities consult, for Spain, the 
volumes on this period in Lafaente, and other consecutive histories of Spain ; 
Weiss, L'Espagne depuis le regne de Philippe II. jusqu'a l'avenement des Bour- 
bons, 2 vols.; Philippson, Heinrich IV. und Philipp III.; Melo, Guerra de la Cata- 
luha, translated by Leonce de Lavergne ; Watson, History of the Reign of Philip 
III., aud Dmilop, Memoirs of Spain during the reigns of Philip IV. and Charles 
II., 2 vols., both old-fashioned but containing much that is valuable ; for Portu- 
gal, Oliveira Martins, Historia de Portugal ; Rebello da Silva, Historia de Portu- 
gal durante os seculos XVI. et XVII., 5 vols. (1557-1656); Vertot, Revolutions de 
Portugal, and Tessier, Le Chevalier de Jant : relations de la France avec le Portu- 
gal au temps de Mazarin. Among primary authorities for Spanish history 
during the century may be noted, in addition to the Coleccion de documentos in- 
editos, MoretFatio, L'Espagne au XVI e . et XVIP. siecle : documents historiques 
et litteraires, Denans de Courchetet, Histoire des negotiations et du traite" de paix 
de Pyrenees, and Mignet, Negotiations relatives a. la succession d'Espagne sous 
Louis XIV., vol. i.; for Portugal, Borges de Castro and Judice Biker, Colleccao 
dos actos publicos celebrados entre a Coroa de Portugal e as mais potencias desde 
1640 ; Carte, History of the Revolutions of Portugal with the Letters of Sir R. 
Southwell to the Duke of Ormond ; and Sir Richard Fanshaw, Original Letters 
during his Embassies in Spain and Portugal. 



LECTURE 16. 



FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV. AND COLBERT: TO THE REVOCATION 
OF THE EDICT OF NANTES, 16S5. 

Louis XIV. assumed the actual government of France on the death 
of Mazarin (1661): his personality ; his political aims ; how far he con- 



France Under Louis XIV. and Colbert. 39 

tinued the work of Richelieu and Mazarin ; how far he was an orig- 
inator. 

His first ministers : the chancellors Seguier (1656-72), d'Aligre 
(1672-77) and LeTellier (1677-85); Hugues de lyionne (1663-71), Pom- 
ponne (1671-79) and Colbert- Croissy (1679-96), foreign affairs ; Le Tel- 
lier (1643-66) and Louvois (1666-91), war ; Fouquet (1653-61) and Col- 
bert (1661-83), finances ; Colbert (1668-76) and Colbert-Seignelay 
(1676-90), marine. 

The overthrow of Fouquet (1661). 

The work of Colbert (b. 16 19, d. 1683): he arranged the finances of 
France ; he built up manufactures by a protective policy ; he encour- 
aged commerce and occupied San Domingo ; he created the French 
navy ; his personal probity ; his hatred of war ; his love of public 
works ; the great canal of Languedoc made by Riquet. 

Louvois (b. 1641, d. 1691) and his work : he organized the army ; his 
military reforms ; formation of uniformed regiments, etc ; the great 
French generals, Turenne and Conde, Luxembourg and Vauban. 

The internal policy of Louis XIV.: he attracted the nobility to Court 
and kept them out of politics ; he built up the administrative system ; 
the intendants of the provinces ; the new official nobility ; the police 
system ; the suppression of local liberties and municipal government ; 
the King and his ministers the pivot of the highly centralized govern- 
ment. 

The position of the Parlements : especially the Parlement of Paris ; 
growing importance of the noblesse de la robe. 

The splendor of Louis XIV.: he established himself at Versailles 
and made it the seat of government (1682); importance given by him 
to the Court ; influence of society and social observances ; etiquette ; 
effect of the removal from Paris ; his absolutism in society as well as in 
politics. 

Immorality of Parisian society : the case of Madame de Brinvilliers 
(1676); the " poisoning affairs " (1680). 

Louis XIV. and the Catholic Church : his quarrel with Pope Alex- 
ander VII. (1662-64) ; his quarrel with Pope Innocent XL (1687-89) ; 
the claims of the Gallican Church ; the Assembly of 1682 ; the attitude 
of Louis XIV. to the Papacy ; the Jansenists and their doctrines ; the 



40 France Under Louis XIV. and Colbert. 

position of the Huguenots ; the new policy adopted by the King ; the 
dragonnades ; Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (22 Oct., 1685). 

Condition of the French provinces under Louis XIV. : suppression 
of brigandage and crime ; the " Grands Jours d' Auvergne " (1665-66); 
hard lot of the peasants ; provincial life among the petite noblesse and 
the bourgeois ; prosperity of the cities, and, under Colbert, of industry 
and commerce. 

Louis XIV. and literature : the classic age ; French tragedy and 
comedy created by Corneille, Racine and Moliere ; the great French 
preachers, Bossuet, Mascaron, Flechier and Bourdaloue; the prose 
writers, Pascal and La Bruyere ; Boileau and the canons of poetry ; 
history and Mezeray ; the work and position of the Academie Francaise. 

Louis XIV. and art : the painters, Poussin, Le Sueur and Le Brun ; 
the architects, Mansart and Perrault ; the gardener, Le Notre ; founda- 
tion of the Academies of Sciences and of Inscriptions and of the School 
of Rome. 

Private life of Louis XIV.: his principal mistresses, Mdlle. de La 
Valliere, Madame de Montespan and Mdlle. de Fontanges ; death of the 
Queen (1683) ; his private marriage to Madame de Maintenon (1684). 

The year of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) marked 
a change in the character and policy of Louis XIV : he is henceforth in- 
fluenced by Madame de Maintenon and his confessors Pere La Chaise, 
and Pere Letellier ; after the death of Colbert the Spanish Succession 
became his one aim. 

Impression which the days of the glory of Louis XIV. made on 
Europe : the imitators of his ideas and of his splendor. 

Authorities : Hassall, Louis XIV. and the Zenith of the French Monarchy is the 
best little book in English on the period ; but Voltaire, Siecle de Louis XIV., is 
not likely to be superseded. Among secondary authorities may be noted Gail- 
lardin, Histoire du regne de Louis XIV., vols. 3, 4 ; Lair, Louise de Valliere et la 
jeunesse de Louis XIV., and Nicolas Fouquet, 2 vols.; Cheruel, De l'administra- 
tion de Louis XIV. (1661-72), and Memoires sur la vie publique et privee de Fou- 
quet, 2 vols.; Clement, Histoire de Colbert et de sou administration, 2 vols; Le Gouv- 
ernement de Louis XIV., ou la cour l'administration, les finances et le commerce 
de 16S3-89 ; La Police sous Louis XIV., and Madame de Montespan et Louis XIV.; 
Neymarck, Colbert et son temps, 2 vols.; Rousset, Histoire de Louvois, 4 vols.; 
Kerviler, Le chancelier Pierre Seguier ; Chantelauze, Le Cardinal de Retz et ses 



Foreign Policy of Louis XIV. 41 

missions diplomatiques a Rome; Gazier, Les dernieres annees du Cardinal de Retz; 
Loyson, L'Assemblee du clerge de France de 1682; Michaud, Louis XIV. et Inno- 
cent XL, 4 vols.; Bausset, Histoire de Bossuet, 4 vols., and Histoire de Fenelon, 4 
vols.; Benoit, Histoire de V Edit de Nantes; Douen, La Revocation de 1' Edit de 
Nantes a. Paris ; Bianquis, La Revocation de 1' Edit de Nantes a Rouen; Soulice, 
L'intendant Foucault et la Revocation en Beam; Puaux and Sabatier, Etudes sur la 
Revocation de l'Edit de Nantes, and Lemontey, Essai sur l'etablissement monarch- 
ique de Louis XIV ; Martin, La Monarchic au XVIIieme siecle ; essai sur le sys- 
teme et l'influence personelle de Louis XIV. The primary authorities for the 
administration of Louis XIV. are Louis XIV., Oeuvres, ed. Grouvelle, 6 vols. ; Mem- 
oire de Louis XIV. pour l'iustruction du Dauphin, ed. Dreyss ; Clement, Lettres, 
instructions et memoires de Colbert, 7 vols.; Boislisle, Correspon dance des control- 
eurs-generaux des finances avec les intendants des provinces, 2 vols., and Mem- 
oires des intendants sur l'etat des generalites, and Depping, Correspondance admin- 
istrative sous le regne de Louis XI V., 4 vols., in the Documents inedits ; for the ad- 
ministration in the provinces see also the works cited under Lecture 29. Among the 
vast number of memoirs, etc., maybe noted the Journal of Lefevre d' Ormesson; 
the Memoires of Madame de Motteville, Mademoiselle de Montpensier, La Fare, 
Gourville and Foucault; Cosnac, Souvenirs du regne de Louis XIV., 8 vols. ; Flech- 
ier, Memoires sur les Grands Jours tenus a. Clermont en 1665-66, ed. Gonod ; and 
Bussv-Rabutin, Correspondance (1663-93), ed. Lalanne; with,above all,the Letters 
of Madame de Sevigne, with Combes, Madame de Sevigne historien. 



LECTURE 17. 



THE FOREIGN POLICY OF LOUIS XIV. : TO THE TREATIES OF 

NIMEGUEN, 1678. 

Position of the powers of Europe toward each other when Louis 
XIV. assumed the government of France (1661). 

The 17th century theory of the State : the idea of religious unity 
was giving way to the conception of national unity concentrated in 
the person of the Monarch ; exceptions, the Protestant Netherlands 
and England. 

The Restoration in England (1660): extinction of feudal relics ; the 
power of Parliament and development of commercialism ; the contest 
for the commerce of the world between England and the Dutch. 



42 Foreign Policy of Louis XIV., 1661-68. 

Advantages possessed by France in the new era of diplomatists and 
standing armies : Louis XIV. understood and dominated the new era ; 
his foreign office and diplomatists ; his army, its organization and its 
generals ; his navy. 

Louis XIV. resolved to use these advantages to enlarge the borders 
of France, and, for internal and external reasons, decided on a war 
policy. 

Louis XIV. and diplomatic privileges : the case of D'Estrades at 
London (1661), and of Crequi at Rome (1662). 

Louis XIV. and England : marriage of Henrietta of England, sister 
of Charles II. , to the Duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIV. (1661) ; 
purchase of Dunkirk (17 Oct., 1662). 

Louis XIV. and Spain : his hopes of the succession ; his claims for 
diplomatic precedence granted. 

Louis XIV. and Germany : help sent to the Emperor against the 
Turks (1664) ; Ms influence with the League of the Rhine and the west 
German princes. 

Louis XIV. and the Turks : Beaufort defeated the Barbary Corsairs 
(1663-65) ; help sent to the Venetians in Candia. 

Louis XIV. and the Dutch : his relations with John de Witt ; effect 
of Colbert's protective policy on the Dutch. 

The naval war between England and the Dutch (1664-67) : causes of 
the war in commercial rivalry ; the republican party and the House of 
Orange ; capture of New Amsterdam ; battle of Lowestoft (3 June, 
1665) ; the attack of Galen, Bishop of Miinster, on the Dutch ; Louis 
XIV. declared war against England (26 Jan., 1666) ; battle of the 
Downs (1-4 June, 1666); Louis XIV. made an agreement with Charles 
II. (March, 1667) ; the Dutch in the Medway ; Treaty of Breda (31 
July, 1667) ; England abandoned the trade of the Spice Islands, but 
kept the New Netherlands. 

The War of Devolution (1667-68) : pretext for the war ; isolation of 
Spain ; Louis XIV. took the border fortresses of the Catholic Nether- 
lands and occupied Franche-Comte ; the Triple Alliance ; by the Treaty 
of Aix-la-Chapelle (2 May, 1668) France kept French Flanders, but re- 
stored Franche-Comte to Spain. 

The Triple Alliance between England, Sweden, and the Dutch (23 



The Dutch War, 167 2-78. 43 

Jan., 1668) : its importance; the principle of the Balance of Power, 
one of the keynotes of European policy for more than a century, devised 
by Sir William Temple, to check the ambition of Louis XIV. 

The position in the Protestant Netherlands : the policy of John de 
Witt ; his opposition to the House of Orange ; character of William 
III. 

Louis XIV. broke up the Triple Alliance by the Treaty of Dover 
with England (1 June, 1670), and by detaching Sweden (14 April, 1672); 
secret treaty with the Emperor for dividing the Spanish Succession (19 
Jan., 1668), followed by a treaty of neutrality (1 Nov., 1671) ; treaty 
with the Elector of Bavaria (17 Feb., 1670). 

Louis XIV. attacked the Dutch (1672) : their sole ally the Great 
Elector, Frederick William of Brandenburg ; William III. appointed 
Captain- General by the States-General of the United Provinces (4 Feb., 
1672) ; passage of the Rhine by the French army (12 June) ; the Dutch 
cut their dykes (18 June); William III. proclaimed Stadtholder of 
Holland and Zealand (4 July) ; murder of John de Witt (20 Aug.) ; 
treaty with the Emperor (27 Oct.) ; the Great Elector forced to make 
peace with France at Vossen (10 Apr., 1673). 

The naval war : England joined France; the battle of Solebay (7 
June, 1672); the Dutch successful under Cornelius Tromp (b. 1629, d. 
1691), and Ruyter (b. 1607, d. 1676), in 1673 (7 June, 14 June, 21 
August); peace between England and the Dutch (19 Feb., 1674). 

The continental war : coalition formed against Louis XIV. by the Em- 
peror and the Great Elector (23 June, 1672) ; conference at Cologne 
(June, 1673) ; the Emperor formed a second coalition with the Dutch, 
joined in succession by Spain and the Duke of Lorraine (30 Aug., 1673), 
Denmark and the Elector-Palatine (Jan. and March, 1674), the Empire 
(28 May, 1674), and the Great Elector (1 July, 1674); the Electors of 
Treves and Cologne forced to abandon France (1673) ; Sweden re- 
mained her only ally. 

Campaign of 1673 : capture of Maestricht (29 June, 1673) ; Turenne's 
strategy ; campaign of 1674 ; Louis XIV. occupied Franche-Comte ; 
William III. defeated by Conde at Senef (11 Aug., 1674); Turenne 
crossed the Rhine and ravaged the Palatinate ; campaign of 1675 ; Tu- 
renne and Montecuccoli in Alsace ; Turenne killed (27 July) ; naval 



44 The Treaties of Nimeguen, 1678. 

victories of Du Ouesne (b. 1610, d. 1688) in the Mediterranean; death 
of Ruyter (Apr., 1676); subsequent campaigns; capture of the border 
fortresses by the French. 

Treaties of Peace signed at Nimeguen ; 

i. Between France and the Dutch (10 Aug., 1678) by which 

France restored Maestricht and the Dutch ceded nothing. 
ii. Between France and Spain (17 Sept., 1678) by which Spain 
ceded Franche-Comte, and Valenciennes, Cambrai and other 
towns in French Flanders, to France, 
iii. Between France and the Emperor (5 Feb., 1679) by which 
France restored Philipsburg, but retained Breisach and Frei- 
burg. 
These treaties supplemented by (i.) that of Saint- Germain-en-Laye 
(29 June, 1679) between Brandenburg and Sweden ; (ii.) that of 
Fontainebleau (26 Sept , 1679) between Denmark and Sweden; by which 
Brandenburg and Denmark restored their conquests to Sweden. 

Authorities : Among secondary works dealing with the diplomatic and 
military history of the period, founded on documents, may be noted, Philippson, 
Das zeitalter Ludwigs des Vierzehnten ; Filon, La France et l'Autriche au XVI P 
Siecle : Lonchay, La rivalite de la France et de l'Espagne aux Pays-Bas (1635- 
1700) ; Lefevre-Pontalis, Jean de Witt ; Groen van Prinsterer and Combes, cited 
under Lecture 10 ; Baillon, Henriette Anne d'Angleterre, duchesse d'Orleans ; 
Forneron, Louise de Keroualle, duchesse de Portsmouth; Segur-Dupeyron, Histoire 
des negotiations commerciales et maritimes de la France au XVII ieme et XVIII 
ieme Siecle, vol. 1 ; Jusserand, A French Ambassador at the Court of Charles II. ; 
le comtede Cominges ; Moiiy, Louis XIV. et le Saint-Siege : l'ambassade du due de 
Crequi (1662-1665) ; Rousset, Histoire de Louvois, 4 vols.; Peter, DerKrieg des 
Grossen Kurfiirsten gegen Frankreich (1672-1675) ; Depping, Geschichte des 
Krieges der Miinsterer und Coiner im Bundnisse mit Frankreich gegen Holland ; 
Ennen, Frankreich und der Niederrhein, 2 vols. ; Guhrauer, Kur-Mainz in der 
Epoche von 1672 ; Piepape, Histoire de la reunion de la Franche-Comte a. la France, 
2 vols. ; Roy, Turenne, sa vie et les institutions militaires de son temps ; Ramsay, 
Histoire du Vicomte de Turenne, 4 vols ; Choppin, Campagne de Turenne en 
Alsace (1674-75) ; Campori, Raimondo Montecuccoli,la sua famiglia e i suoi tempi ; 
Michel, Histoire de Vauban ; Mellion, Vauban ; Ambert, Le Marechal de Vauban ; 
Jal, Abraham Du Quesne et la marine de son temps, 2 vols., and Paulliat, Louis 
XIV. et la compagnie des Indes. The chief primary authorities are the text of 
the treaties in Vast, Les grandes trait£s du regne de Louis XIV. ; Mignet, Negotia- 
tions relatives a. la succession d'Espagne, 4 vols. ; Griffet, Recueil de Lettres pour 



Frederick William, the Great Elector. 45 

servir a l'histoire militaire de Louis XIV., 8 vols.; Turenne, Correspondance 
inedite avec Le Tellier et Louvois (1652-72), ed. Barthelemy, and the Memoiresof 
Turenne, Montecuccoli and the Marechal Gramont. 



LECTURE 18. 



FREDERICK WILLIAM, THE GREAT ELECTOR. 

The scattered nature and diverse character of the dominions ruled by 
Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia, 
known as the Great Elector (b. 1620, succeeded 1640). 

In 1648 Brandenburg, the nucleus, was not yet entirely evacuated by 
the Swedish troops ; Eastern Pomerania still full of Swedes ; Prussia 
only held in feudal subjection to Poland ; and Cleves garrisoned by the 
Dutch ; the additional territory given to him by the Treaties of West- 
phalia — Magdeburg, Halberstadt, Cammin and Minden. 

Contrast between the policy pursued in Brandenburg and in the rest 
of Germany during the latter half of the 17th century: the importance 
of the reign of the Great Elector ; he prepared the way for the future 
greatness of the House of Hohenzollern. 

The Great Elector's national policy : his desire to hold Prussia free 
from Polish suzerainty the motive for his actions in the Northern War of 
1656-60 ; that relief, granted by the Treaty of Wehlau (1657), confirmed 
by the Treaty of Oliva (1660); his desire to get the Dutch garrison out 
of Cleves the motive for aiding the Dutch in 1672 ; his desire to con- 
quer Western Pomerania the motive for joining the coalition against 
Louis XIV. 

To carry out his schemes the Great Elector, like Louis XIV., created 
and organized a standing army and looked solely to national interests. 

In 1666 he finally divided the J uliers- Cleves dominions, and took 
Cleves, Ravensberg and Mark ; in the same year he occupied Magde- 
burg, which afterwards legally devolved on him according to the 
Treaties of Westphalia, on the death of Augustus of Saxony in 1680. 

Part taken by the Great Elector in the wars against Louis XIV : in 
1672 he aided the DuHi, but made peace in 1673 ; in 1674 he joined the 



46 Frederick William , the Great Elector. 

coalition against France, and was attacked by Sweden ; he defeated 
the Swedes at Fehrbellin (28 June, 1675), took Stettin (1677), an d 
Stralsund (1678) ; but by the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (29 
June, 1679), he had to restore all Western Pomerania except a small 
district. 

The Great Elector and the Emperor : his German policy ; a member 
of the League of the Rhine ; strife for the leadership of the Protestant 
princes with Saxony ; his friendship with Denmark ; his attitude to- 
wards Poland ; his claims to Jagernsdorf in Silesia, confiscated by Fer- 
dinand II. in 1623, and to Liegnitz on death of the last duke (1675), 
compromised in 1686 by the Emperor Leopold's ceding to him Schwebus 
in Silesia. 

The internal policy of the Great Elector : his struggle for absolutism 
and centralized administration with the nobility, united in their pro- 
vincial Estates, and with the municipal rights of the cities ; local jeal- 
ousy of the different provinces. 

i. In Brandenburg : the Estates were enfeebled and could not 
meet without being convoked ; no Estates of the province, 
only provincial Estates in the Old, and New, Mark. 
ii. In Cleves : the nobility Lutheran and opposed to the Cal- 
vinist Elector ; their alliance with the Dutch ; the adminis- 
tration in the hands of the Estates ; the resistance of the 
nobility overthrown by the use of troops in 1651 and 1654 ; 
the administration taken into the hands of the Elector, 
iii. In Prussia : the nobility with full feudal power taxing 
and ruling their dominions ; their friendship with and imi- 
tation of the Polish nobility ; independent attitude of the 
Estates, supported by the city of Konigsberg ; the Great 
Elector's struggle for the recognition of his sovereignty 
(1660-63); th e execution of Kalkstein (1670). 
The keynote of the struggle the definition of the position of the 
Elector and the Estates : the main battle over taxation ; in Branden- 
burg (1653), in Cleves (1661), in Prussia (1663) the right of self-taxa- 
tion by the Estates was acknowledged ; but in Cleves from 1670, in 
Brandenburg from 1678, in Prussia and in Magdeburg from 1682 the 
direct taxes were recognized as permanent, and future taxes imposed 
without asking the Estates ; excise introduced (1677). 



Louis XIV. and William III. 47 

In return for the subordination of the nobles, the Great Elector rec- 
ognized serfdom on their properties and re-established it in Prussia. 

To carry out his ambitious hopes for his House, the Great Elector 
saw that Brandenburg must be a military power : his efforts to create a 
standing army ; at his accession it consisted of 1,200 men, at his death 
of 30,000. 

Material progress encouraged by the Great Elector : agriculture im- 
proved ; marshes drained ; canal made from the Elbe to the Oder ; 
growth of Berlin ; welcome of more than 20,000 Huguenots after the 
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 

Death of the Great Elector (28 April, 1688): comparison between his 
aims and methods and those of Louis XIV. 

Authorities : In English see Carlyle, History of Frederick the Great, vols. 1, 
2, and Tuttle, History of Prussia, vol. 1. Among secondary histories consult 
Bemer, Geschichte des preussischen Staats ; Stenzel, Geschichte des preussischen 
Staats, vols. 1, 2; Droysen, Geschichte der preussischen Politik, vol. 3; Ranke, Zwolf 
Bucher preussischer Geschichte ; Treitschke, Deutsche Geschichte, vol. 1 ; Philipp- 
son, Geschichte des preussischer Staatswesens, vol. 1 ; Bornhak, Geschichte des 
preussischen Verwaltungsrechts. vol. 1 ; Isaacsohn, Geschichte des preussischen 
Beamtenthums, vol. 2 ; Cavaignac, La Formation de la Prusse contemporaine, vol. 1; 
Hedestrom, Die Beziehungen zwischen Russland und Brandenburg wahrend des ersten 
nordischen Krieges (1655-60) ; Miisedeck, Die Feldziige desGrossen Kurfiirsten in 
Pommern (1675-77) ', an d Peter, cited under Lecture 17. The best biography is 
Erdmannsdorffer, Der Grosse Kurfiirst. The primary authority is the collec- 
tion, edited by Erdmannsdorffer and others, of the Urkunden und Actenstiicke zur 
Geschichte des Kurfiirsten Friedrich Wilhelm von Brandenburg. 



LECTURE 19. 



THE FOREIGN POLICY OF LOUIS XIV : TO THE TREATIES OF RYS- 

WICK, 1697. 

The rivalry between William III., Prince of Orange, and Louis XIV. : 
the character of William III. ; his adherence to the doctrine of the Bal- 
ance of Power ; the question of the Spanish Succession. 

The position of William III. in the United Provinces : he was pro- 



48 Foreign Policy of Louis XIV., 1678-88. 

claimed hereditary Captain- and Admiral-General (1674), and hereditary 
Stadtholder of Holland, Zealand and Utrecht (1674), and of Gelderland 
and Overyssel (1675) ; his chief agent, Fagel, Pensionary of Holland 
(1672-88) ; after the Treaties of Nimeguen the republican party raised 
opposition to him; Heinsius (b. 1641, d. 1720; elected Pensionary of Hol- 
land (March, 1689). 

The position of Louis XIV. after the Treaties of Nimeguen ; his re- 
lations with Charles II. and James II. of England ; the ' ' chambers of 
reunion " declared certain towns and districts belonging to the Elector- 
Palatine, the Elector of Treves, the Bishop of Spires and the Duke of 
Wiirtemberg, with the duchy of Deux-Ponts (Zweibriicken), a posses- 
sion of the King of Sweden, to be fiefs of the Three Bishoprics, Alsace 
or Franche Comte ; seizure of Strasburg and purchase of Casale (30 
Sept., 1 681) ; secret alliance between the Emperor, William III., Spain 
and Sweden (1 681) negotiated \>y Ernest, Duke of Hanover, to preserve 
the arrangements made at Nimeguen in 1678 ; prevented from acting 
by the invasion of the Turks and the siege of Vienna (1683) ; capture of 
Luxemburg (1684) ; the Imperial Diet made a truce of twenty years 
with Louis XIV., and consented to the reunions (15 Aug., 1684). 

Formation of the League of Augsburg (17 July, 1686) between the 
allies of 1681, joined by Victor Amadeus II., Duke of Savoy, the Elec- 
tor of Bavaria and others. 

Louis XIV. and the Mediterranean : Du Quesne bombarded Tripoli 
(1681) and Algiers (1682-83) and Genoa (1684) ; Seignelay's work in 
improving the French navy. 

Louis XIV. and Pope Innocent XL: the ambassador's right of asy- 
lum ; occupation of Avignon (1688). 

Louis XIV. and the administration : Colbert succeeded by Le Pele- 
tier (1683-89), and Pontchartrain (1689-99) > Louvois by Barbezieux 
(1691-1701) ; Colbert- Croissy assisted by Colbert-Torcy (1689) anc * suc- 
ceeded by him (1696). 

Effect of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) on Europe, 
especially on England and Germany. 

Outbreak of war (1688) : its immediate causes ; (1) the Palatine Suc- 
cession (1685) ; pretensions of Louis XIV. on behalf of the Duchess 
of Orleans ; (2) the electorate of Cologne, France supporting Cardinal 



War of the League of Augsburg \ 1 688-9 J. 49 

von Fiirstenberg and the Emperor, Joseph Clement of Bavaria ; devas- 
tation of the Palatinate, occupation of Bonn, Cologne, Mayence and 
Treves and capture of Philipsburg (1689). 

The situation changed by the Revolution of 1688 in England, by 
which William III. became ruler of England ; effect on the position of 
Louis XIV.; despatch of an army and a fleet to support James II. in 
Ireland. 

Campaign of 1690 : DeTourville defeated the English and the Dutch 
off Beachy Head (10 July), but James II. was defeated in the battle of 
the Boyne (11 July), and left Ireland ; Luxembourg (b. 1628, d. 1695) 
defeated the Prince of Waldeck at Fleurus (1 July, 1690), and Catinat 
(b. 1637, d. 1712), the Duke of Savoy at Staffarda (17 Aug., 1690). 

The campaign of 1691 : preparations of Louis XIV. for the invasion 
of England ; capture of Mons (9 April) by the king ; of Nice (2 April) 
by Catinat ; of Urgel by Noailles ; death of Louvois. 

The campaign of 1692 : Russell defeated De Tourville in the battle 
of La Hogue (29 May) ; end of the French supremacy in the Channel : 
regular naval war abandoned for frigate fighting and privateering ; 
Duguay-Trouin and Jean Bart ; the invasion of England abandoned ; 
capture of Namur by the king (5 June) ; Luxembourg defeated William 
III. at Steenkirk (3 August) ; the Duke of Savoy and Prince Eugene 
invaded Dauphine. 

The campaign of 1693 : Luxembourg defeated William III. at Lan- 
den or Neerwinden (29 July) and took Charleroi (11 Oct.); Catinat de- 
feated the Duke of Savoy and Prince Eugene at the Marsaglia (4 Oct.); 
Rosas captured by Noailles (9 June) ; Pondicherry , the chief French set- 
tlement in India, taken by the Dutch. 

Exhaustion of France : feebleness of the ministers ; depreciation of 
the currency. 

Defensive campaign of 1694 : death of Luxembourg (4 Jan., 1695) ; 
William III. recaptured Namur (4 Aug., 1695); Louis XIV. made 
peace (29 June, 1696) with Victor Amadeus II. of Savoy, who recov- 
ered Pignerol and Casale, and whose daughter married the eldest grand- 
son of Louis ; he declared himself the ally of France. 

Negotiations for peace opened at Ryswick (May, 1697): Vendome's 
capture of Barcelona (10 Aug.). 

The Treaties of Ryswick signed 20 Sept. and 30 Oct., 1697 : 



50 The Treaties of Ryswick, i6py. 

i. Louis XIV. recognized William III. as King of England, but 

refused to expel James II. from France, 
ii. The Dutch restored Pondicherry and were allowed to garrison 

the frontier towns of Belgium as " barrier fortresses." 
iii. Louis XIV. restored to the Empire Philipsburg, Breisach and 
Freiburg, the fortresses held by France on the right bank of 
the Rhine, and all places adjudged to him or seized by him 
since the Treaties of Nimeguen, except Strasburg, Longwy, 
Sarrelouis and Landau, 
iv. Leopold, Duke of Lorraine, restored to his father's dominions, 
with all fortresses dismantled. 
Position of the powers of Europe at the Treaties of Ryswick awaiting 
the settlement of the Spanish Succession. 

Authorities : Of the secondary histories cited for Lectures 16 and 17, Vol- 
taire, Gaillardin, Clement, Le Gouvernement de Louis XIV. de 1683-89 ; Rousset, 
Michaud, Bausset, Lemontey, Martin,Philippson, Filon,Lonchay, Segur-Dupeyron, 
vol. ii., Ennen, Roy, Michel, Mellion, Ambert and Jal are still valuable, and of the 
primary authorities Louis XIV., Dreyss, Boislisle, Depping, Foucault, Cos- 
nac, La Fare, Bussy-Rabutin, Madame de Sevignt and Griffet. To the second- 
ary authorities should be added for this period Macaulay, History of England, 
vols. 1-4 ; Sirtemade Grovestins, Guillaume III. et Louis XIV., 8 vols. ; Wolseley, 
Life of the Duke of Marlborough to the Accession of Queen Anne ; Noailles, His- 
toire de Madame de Maintenon et des principaux evenements du regne de Louis 
XIV., 4 vols.; Geffroy, Madame de Maintenon ; Wilson, James II. and the Duke 
of Berwick ; Reuss, L' Alsace au XVII. ieme siecle ; Legrelle, Louis XIV. et Stras- 
bourg ; Gerin, Louis XIV. et le Saint-Siege ; Schulte, Markgraf Ludwig von Baden 
und der Reichskrieg gegen Frankreich, 2 vols. ; Delarbre, Tourville et la marine de 
son temps ; Carutti, Storia del regno di Vittorio Amedio II., and D' Haussonville, 
La Duchesse de Bourgogne et 1' alliance savoyarde sous Louis XIV., and Histoire 
de la reunion de la Lorraine a la Prance, 4 vols. To the primary authorities 
add State Papers and Correspondence illustrative of the social and political state of 
Europe, 1688-1715, ed. Kemble ; Lexington Papers, 1694-98, ed. Sutton; Span- 
heim, Relation sur la cour de France en 1690 ; Madame de Maintenon, Correspond- 
ance generale.and Gjuvres, ed. by Lavallee, 12 vols.; the Letters of the Duchesse 
d' Orleans, known as Madame Palatine, ed. by Bodemann, 1 vols, translated and 
ed.Jaegle, 3 vols.; Catinat, Memoires et Correspondance, 3 vols.; Dumont von 
Carlscroon, Memoires politiques pour servir a. la parfaite intelligence de l'histoire 
de la paix de Ryswick, 4 vols ; and the documents of the Peace of Ryswick, ed. 
Fritsch ; the Memoires of Mdlle. de, Lafayette, Madame de Caylus, the Abbe 
Choisy, and Torcy, and the Journal of Dangeau, vols. 1-6. 



The Siege of Vienna, 1683. 51 

LECTURE 20. 



THE SIEGE OF VIENNA BY THE TURKS, 1683 : POLAND UNDER 
JOHN SOBIESKI. 

The Emperor Leopold I. (165 8- 1705): his character and his govern- 
ment. 

The Emperor Leopold I. and Hungary : his efforts (1) to extirpate 
Calvinism, (2) to destroy local independence, in the portion of Hungary 
left to him ; the situation after the Treaty of Vasvar (1664); the con- 
spiracy of 1670 ; the office of Palatine abolished and a policy of relig- 
ious persecution and Germanization adopted ; the insurrection of To- 
koli (1675-79) encouraged by Louis XIV. to embarrass the Emperor ; 
effect of Western on Eastern European politics ; the Treaty of Nime- 
guen (1678) followed by the Diet of (Edensberg (1681), by which the 
office of Palatine was restored, arbitrary taxes abolished, all offices 
thrown open to Magyars and liberty of worship promised to the Protest- 
ants ; Paul Esterhazy chosen Palatine to the disgust of Tokoli. 

The Emperor Leopold and Transylvania ; attitude of that province to 
the Turks ; on the death of George Rakoczy II. (1660) Michael Apafy 
appointed Prince of Transylvania ; recognized by both Emperor and 
Sultan by the Truce of Vasvar (1664), but to pay tribute to the Sultan. 

The Turks declared Tokoli Prince of Hungary (1682), and under com- 
mand of the brother-in-law of Ahmad Kiuprili, KaraMustapha, (Grand 
Vizier since 1676), marched on Vienna (1683); the siege of Vienna 
(March-Sept., 1683) >' its significance in history ; help demanded by 
the Emperor from other states ; heroic defense of Vienna under Ernest 
Riidiger von Starhemberg ; appeal for the help of John Sobieski, King 
of Poland ; attempt of Louis XIV. to isolate the Emperor. 

John Sobieski (b. 1629) elected King of Poland (21 May, 1674) ; feeble 
reign of Michael Koributh Vichnevetski (1669-74) >' Sobieski' s diffi- 
culties in Poland since the Treaty of Zuravna (27 Oct., 1676); his 
treaties with Russia and the Dutch ; his fame as a general ; his desire 
for a crusade against the Turks ; his friendship with Pope Innocent XI. ; 
his disputes with Louis XIV. ; his determination to come to the help 
of the Emperor with the Polish army. 



52 The War with the Turks, 1684.-98. 

John Sobieski, with Charles V., Duke of Lorraine (b. 1643, d. 1690), 
in command of the Austrian army, defeated the Turks in their camp 
(12 Sept., 1683) and raised the siege of Vienna ; pursuit of the Turks ; 
capture of Gran (24 Oct.) ; execution of Kara Mustapha (25 Dec, 
1683). 

War with the Turks : first phase (1684-89); excitement caused in 
Christendom by the siege of Vienna ; the ' ' Holy League ' ' of Austria, 
Poland, Venice and Malta, formed by Pope Innocent XL ; the Venetians 
under Morosini conquered the Morea and Athens (1684-87) ; the Poles 
in Moldavia (1686); the Duke of Lorraine captured Buda (2 Sept., 
1686); he and Louis of Baden (b. 1655, d. 1707) defeated the Turks at 
Mohacs (12 Aug., 1687); the Janissaries deposed Muhammad IV. and 
placed Sulaiman II. on the throne (8 Nov., 1687) ; Michael Apafy, 
Prince of Transylvania, declared himself a vassal of the Emperor (28 
July, 1686) ; capture of Belgrade (6 Sept., 1688) ; Louis of Baden in- 
vaded Servia ; the Russian attack on the Crimea ; Mustapha Kiuprili, 
brother of Ahmad Kiuprili, appointed Grand Vizier (Sept., 1689). 

The Emperor Leopold's actions on the conquest of Hungary : mas- 
sacre of the friends of Tokoli ; the ' ' butchery ' ' at Eperies ; the crown 
of Hungary made hereditary, instead of elective, in the House of Haps- 
burg (31 Oct., 1687); abolition of the coronation oath and of the right 
of insurrection ; persecution of the Protestants. 

War with the Turks : second phase (1689-91); the Emperor forced to 
detach the Duke of Lorraine to fight Louis XIV. on the Rhine ; Louis 
of Baden in command against the Turks ; Mustapha Kiuprili appointed 
Tokoli Prince of Transylvania and recaptured Belgrade (1690); acces- 
sion of Ahmad II. ; Louis of Baden defeated the Turks at Szalankemen 
(19 Aug., 1 691) ; Mustapha Kiuprili killed ; Transylvania conquered ; 
the Hapsburgs recognized as Princes of Transylvania (Dec. 1691) ; 
John Sobieski' s last campaign ; his march to the Pruth (1691) ; Louis 
of Baden sent to the Rhine ; failure of the negotiations for peace. 

War with the Turks : third phase (1691-98) ; unimportant operations 
(1691-95) ; accession of Mustapha II. (1695) ; he assumed command of 
the Turkish army ; his invasion of Hungary and capture of many for- 
tresses ; confusion caused by the death of John Sobieski ; Peter the 
Great captured Azov (28 July, 1696) ; Prince Eugene destroyed the 



The Treaty of Carlowitz, i6pp. 53 

Turkish army in the battle of the Zenta (11 Sept., 1697) '■> Hussain 
Kiuprili appointed Grand Vizier ; the Turks forced to sue for peace. 

Reasons which induced the Emperor Leopold to make peace with the 
Turks ; the imminence of the falling-in of the Spanish Succession ; medi- 
ation of the English and Dutch. 

Treaty of Carlowitz (26 Jan., 1699) : 

i. The Emperor obtained Hungary, except the Banat of Temes- 
var ; the whole of Transylvania ; Croatia ; and Slavonia as 
far as the Save, 
ii. Venice obtained Dalmatia and the Morea. 
ii:. Poland recovered Podolia with Kaminietz. 
By separate treaty (3 July, 1700) Russia obtained Azov. 
Since the siege of Vienna the Turks have receded in Europe : the 
Treaty of Carlowitz marks the first stage of their decline. 

The condition of Poland under John Sobieski : rivalry between the 
Poles and Lithuanians ; the factious nobility ; Sobieski' s schemes for 
reform rejected ; he was without subsidies or support ; attitude of foreign 
powers ; Sobieski' s attempt to abdicate ; approach of civil war ; Sobieski' s 
advancement of civilization in Poland ; death of John Sobieski (17 June, 
1696). 

Election of the Elector Augustus of Saxony to be King of Poland 
(1 June, 1697). 

Authorities : Among small books Leger, Autriche-Hongrie ; Creasy, Otto- 
man Turks, and Morfill, Story of Poland, as before, with Maiden, History and Con- 
sequences of the Defeat of the Turks before Vienna in 1683. As secondary 
authorities see Coxe, History of the House of Austria, 4 vols. ; /Crones, Hand- 
buch der Geschichte (Esterreichs : Mailath, Geschichte der CEsterreichischen 
Kaiserstaats ; Michiels, Histoire secrete du gouvernement autrichien ; Gerando, La 
Transylvanie ; Teutsch, Geschichte der Siebenbiirger Sachsen ; Klofip, Das Jahr 
1683 und der folgende grosse Turkenkrieg bis zum Frieden von Carlowitz ; Thiir- 
heiin, Feldmarschall Ernst Riidiger, Graf Stahremberg ; Roder von Diersburg, 
Des Markgrafen Dudwig Wilhelm von Baden Feldziige wider die Tiirken, 2 vols. ; 
Arneth, Prinz Eugen von Savoyen, 3 vols. ; Bruzzo, Francesco Morosini e la con- 
questa della Morea ; Von Hammer, Histoire de l'Empire Ottoman, vols. 12, 13 ; 
Coyer, Histoire de Jean Sobieski, 3 vols., and Salvandy, Histoire de Pologne avant 
et sous Jean Sobieski, 3 vols., are old-fashioned and do not give sources, but inter- 
esting ; a more recent book is Waliszewski, Maryzienka, being a sketch of the life 
of Marie d'Arquien, wife of John Sobieski. 



54 Ricssia tender Peter the Great. 

LECTURE 21. 



RUSSIA UNDER PETER THE GREAT. 

Condition of Russia under the first Romanovs, Michael (1613-45) 
and Alexis (1645-76) : internal and foreign policy of the Tsars. 

The reign of Feodor Alexievitch, eldest son of Alexis Romanov 
(1676-82). 

Peter Alexievitch (b. 9 June, 1672), youngest son of Alexis, recog- 
nized as Tsar (7 May, 1682) ; the rising of the Streltsi at Moscow ; 
Ivan V., his half brother, proclaimed joint Tsar with Peter (28 May, 
1682) ; Princess Sophia made Regent. 

The government of Sophia and Vasili Galitzin (1682-89) : confirma- 
tion of the Peace of Kardis with Sweden and the Treaty of Androus- 
sovo ; Galitzin's expedition against the Crimean Tartars (1687-89); 
overthrow of Sophia ; Peter assumed the government (i7Sept, 1689). 

The boyhood of Peter the Great : his education ; his character ; his 
passion for boat-building ; his foreign friends ; Lefort ; his amusements 
and occupations ; his longing for a navy ; condition of Russian com- 
merce ; Archangel ; the Baltic ; the government of the boyars ; by 
death of Ivan V., Peter became sole Tsar (8 Feb., 1696). 

Peter the Great's first war ; the capture of Azov (28 July, 1696) ; 
by treaty with the Turks Azov granted to Russia (3 July, 1700). 

Peter the Great's visit to Western Europe (1697-9S) : its political re- 
sults ; its effect on Peter's character. 

Destruction of the Streltsi (1698) : first steps taken for the formation 
of a regular army and navy ; forcible introduction of Western usages. 

First appearance of Russia in European politics : negotiations be- 
tween Augustus I., Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, Frederick, 
Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick IV., King of Denmark, and Peter 
the Great for an attack on Sweden ; motives of the attack ; Peter's de- 
sire for a port on the Baltic. 

The schemes of Patkul : on behalf of the Livonian nobility he offered 
Livonia and Esthonia to Augustus, Ingria and Carelia to Peter, at an 
interview between the two monarchs (July, 1698). 



Russia under Peter the Great. 55 

Peter the Great's invasion of Ingria : the Russians defeated by- 
Charles XII. at the battle of Narva (13 Nov., 1700) ; Charles XII. 
marched into Poland. 

Capture of Noteburgby the Russians (22 Oct., 1702), and foundation 
of St. Petersburg by Peter the Great : occupation of Ingria and Ca- 
relia ; capture of Narva (20 Aug., 1704). 

The Tsaritsa Catherine (b. 1684) : private marriage (1707) ; public 
marriage (1712) ; her influence over Peter; Menshikov (b. 1672). 

Closeness of the alliance between Peter and Augustus I. : the devasta- 
tion of Ljvonia ; the Swedes defeated at Kalisch (29 Oct., 1706) ; Au- 
gustus made peace with Charles XII. at Altranstadt (1706) ; Peter left 
without allies ; the war in Lithuania ; fortification of Moscow. 

Charles XII. invaded the Ukraine (1708) : treachery of Mazeppa, 
Hetman of the Cossacks of the Dnieper ; the battle of Liesna (9 Oct., 
1708) ; the winter of 1708-9 ; destruction of the Swedish army at Pol- 
tava (8 July, 1709) ; escape of Charles XII.; importance of the victory; 
Russia takes rank with European nations ; the result of a trained and 
disciplined army ; immediate effects of the victory ; Augustus, aided 
by Peter, resolved to recover the Polish throne and to conquer Livonia ; 
the Russians made safe in Ingria and Carelia, with an outlet to the Bal- 
tic ; failure of the proposed marriage between the sister of the Emperor 
and the Tsarevitch Alexis, who married Princess Charlotte of Bruns- 
wick-Wolfenbiittel (25 Oct., 171 1) ; league of Russia, Denmark and 
Prussia formed against Sweden ; by Treaty of Marienwerder (1 Nov., 
1709), Elbing promised to Prussia. 

The partition of Poland suggested by Frederick of Prussia and Au- 
gustus to Peter the Great : Frederick wanted Royal Prussia ; Augustus 
was not unwilling to give it, as well as White Russia to Peter, if they 
would guarantee him the rest of Poland as an hereditary monarchy. 

Peter the Great's internal reforms : the new administration ; the Privy 
Council in the place of the Council of Boyars ; the new departments ; 
formation of the eight governments ; the taxes and financial system ; 
commerce and monopolies ; encouragement of foreigners ; ecclesiastical 
reforms ; reformation of the monasteries ; the Senate ; unpopularity of 
these changes ; local insurrections and discontent. 

Continuance of the war with Sweden : capture of Viborg (21 June, 



56 Russia under Peter the Great. 

1 710), of Riga (July) and of Revel (September) ; occupation of Livonia 
and Esthonia ; marriage of Peter's niece Anne to the Duke of Courland ; 
occupation of Courland. 

The Turks declared war against Peter the Great (1 Dec, 1710) ; Con- 
stantine Brancovano, Hospodar of Wallachia, and Demetrius Cantemir, 
Hospodar of Moldavia, invited him to help them to throw off their sub- 
jection to the Sultan and to become the liberator of the Romanian 
Christians ; Peter the Great invaded Moldavia ; surrounded by the 
Turks on the Pruth ; Catherine came to his help ; by treaty of 23 July, 
171 1, Peter agreed to surrender Azov, which was given up to the Turks 
in 1712. 

The campaigns in Pomerania (1711-13) : sequestration of Stettin. 

Peter the Great's position at the time of the Treaties of Utrecht. 

The greatness of the work Peter had done for Russia. 

Authorities: Of small hooks the most readable is still, despite some mis- 
takes and misconceptions, Voltaire, Histoire de 1'empire de Russie sous Pierre le 
Grand, which should be checked by the chapters on his reign in Morfill, Story of 
Russia, and Rambaud, Histoire de la Russie, translated by L. B. Lang, 2 vols. 
The best secondary authorities are Schuyler, Peter the Great ; Waliszewski, 
Pierre le Grand ; Bruckner, Peter der Grosse, and Herrmann, Russland unter Peter 
der Grosse ; more special works are Merhnie, Cosaques d'autrefois, Stenka Razin ; 
Wemich, Der Livlander Johann Reinhold von Patkul und seine Zeitgenossen, 
and Posselt, Der General und Admiral Franz Lefort, sein Leben und seine Zeit. 2 
vols. The correspondence of English, French and German diplomatists, as well 
as other papers bearing on the reign of Peter, are to be found in the "Sbornik," the 
collection of documents, published by the Imperial Historical Society of St. Peters- 
burg. 



LECTURE 22. 



CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN. 

The reign of Charles XI. of Sweden (1660-97) : during his minority 
and the government of his mother, Hedwiga of Holstein-Gottorp, 
peace was made with Poland, Denmark and Russia (1660-61), and 



Charles XII. of Sweden. 57 

Sweden joined the Triple Alliance (1668) ; the political position in 
Sweden ; the government of the nobles, who even granted to them- 
selves the crown lands. 

Charles XI. assumed the government (1672) : his alliance with 
France; his invasion of Brandenburg; attacked by Denmark and the 
Dutch; his navy was defeated by Cornelius Tromp (11 June, 1675) and 
his army by the Great Elector at Fehrbellin (18 June, 1675); he de- 
feated the Danes at Dund (11 Dec, 1675), but lost all Pomerania, and 
his fleet was destroyed by Admiral Juel (11 June, 1678); by the Treaty 
of Saint- Germain-en-Daye (29 June, 1679) he recovered all his lost ter- 
ritory by the influence of Douis XIV. ; disgusted at the action of the 
"chambre de reunion" of Douis XIV. with regard to his duchy of 
Deux-Ponts, he entered the secret alliance against L,ouis XIV. (1681); 
joined the League of Augsburg (1686); and aided the Dutch with 
6,000 men (1688-97). 

The Revolution of 1682 : the power of the Senate had been over- 
thrown with the help of the Diet (1680) ; absolute power placed in the 
hands of the king by the Estates, or Diet; he resumed all lands granted 
to the nobility since 1609 ; his excellent administration ; economy and 
large savings ; encouragement of Swedish commerce. 

Christian V., King of Denmark (1670-99) : the administration of Grif- 
fenfeld (1670-76); result of the war with Sweden ; his troubles with Hol- 
stein-Gottorp ; the Convention of Altona (169 1); his attempts to imitate 
Louis XIV. ; his creation of a privileged nobility ; excellence of his 
navy and commerce ; his administration ; his invasion of Schleswig 
(1698) ; succeeded by Frederick IV. (1699). 

Charles XII. of Sweden (b. 1682) : succeeded his father (1697); his 
education and character ; declared of age (1699); danger threatened by 
the alliance against him of Denmark, Brandenburg, Saxony, Poland and 
Russia. 

The first campaign of Charles XII. : his invasion of Denmark in aid 
of his cousin and brother-in-law, the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (July, 
1700) ; attack on Copenhagen ; Frederick IV. made the Treaty of Tra- 
vandahl (18 Aug., 1700), granting practical sovereignty to the Duke in 
Schleswig. 

The second campaign of Charles XII. ; he defeated the Russians at 



58 Charles XII of Sweden. 

Narva (30 Nov., 1700) and the Saxons at Klissow (19 July, 1702), and 
at Pultusk (1 May, 1703). 

Charles XII. despised Russia and resolved to drive Augustus I. out 
of Poland ; the Polish Diet declared the throne of Poland vacant ; elec- 
tion of Stanislas Leczinski as King of Poland (12 July, 1704) ; Charles 
XII. invaded Saxony ; by the Treaty of Altranstadt (24 Sept., 1706) 
Augustus recognized Stanislas as king ; execution of Patkul (10 Oct.) ; 
commanding position of Charles XII. in European politics ; expectation 
of his intervention in the War of the Spanish Succession ; visit of Marl- 
borough to his camp. 

Charles XII. invaded the Ukraine (1708) : his army destroyed or cap- 
tured by Peter the Great at Poltava (11 July, 1709) ; his escape to 
Bender ; his efforts to induce the Turks to attack Russia ; arrested by 
the Turks and imprisoned at Adrianople (1713). 

The Northern War during the residence of Charles XII. at Bender : 
Augustus I. disregarded the Treaty of Altranstadt and with Peter the 
Great reconquered Poland ; Stanislas Leczinski escaped to Sweden 
(1710) and joined Charles XII. at Bender (1713) ; the Russians recon- 
quered Esthonia and the shores of the Gulf of Finland ; Frederick IV. 
of Denmark invaded Sweden, but was defeated by Stenbock (b. 1664, 
d. 1717) at Helsingborg (10 March, 1710); Stenbock defeated the 
Danes at Gadebusch (20 Dec, 17 12) and burnt Altona ; joined by the 
Duke of Holstein-Gottorp ; Stenbock forced to surrender at Tonning 
(May, 1 7 13) ; the Danes conquered Bremen and Verden ; campaign of 
the Russians, Prussians, Saxons and Danes in Pomerania ; the whole 
province occupied, except Stralsund. 

Position of the northern powers at the Treaties of Utrecht : exhausted 
condition of Sweden ; triumphant attitude of Russia, Prussia and Den- 
mark ; Sweden ceased to be a great power ; the position given her by 
the Treaties of Westphalia too great for her to hold ; sources of her 
strength and weakness. 

The character and career of Charles XII. : ' ' the Madman of the 
North." 

Authorities : The best small books are, Voltaire, Charles XII. ; Bain, 
Charles XII. and the Collapse of the Swedish Empire ; Otte, Scandinavian History, 
and Geffroy, Les Etats Scandinaves. For more detailed information see Wernich, 



The Spanish Succession. 59 

cited under Lecture 21; Lundblad, Geschichte Karls des Zwolften. 2 vols.; Beskow, 
KarPder Tolfte, and Sarauw, Die Feldziige Karls XII., while Schuyler, Peter the 
Great; Morfill, Story of Poland, and T utile, History of Prussia, can be consulted 
for the Russian, Polish and Prussian sides of the Northern War. The general his- 
tories of Sweden by Fryxell, and by Geijer, translated into German and continued 
by Carlson, devote much space to the reigns of Charles XI. and Charles XII. 



LECTURE 23. 



THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. 

The question of the succession to the Spanish dominions upon the 
long-expected death of the childless Charles II. was the most important 
question in European politics for half a century: efforts made to settle 
the question by peaceful means; the doctrine of the Balance of Power. 

The reign of Charles II. of Spain (1665-1700): the regency of the 
queen-mother, Donna Marianna (1665-75); the influence of Pere 
Nithard (1665-69); he was forced to retire by Don John; the king 
declared of age (1675); the government of Don John (1675-79); Spain 
lost French Flanders and Franche-Comte by the Treaties of Nimeguen 
(1678). 

Feeble health of the king: the influence of his first wife, a French 
princess, Maria Louisa of Orleans (1679-89); her quarrels with her 
mother-in-law; influence of his second wife, Marianna of Neuburg, 
exercised in favor of Austria; position and influence of Cardinal Porto 
Carrero (b. 1631, d. 1709); his support of the claims of the Electoral 
Prince of Bavaria, and after his death of those of the Duke of Anjou; 
Spain invaded by the French (1694-97), but l° s t nothing by the Treaties 
of Ryswick (1697); steady decline of Spanish power and prosperity. 

The Secret Partition Treaty between Louis XIV. and the Emperor 
Leopold (19 Jan., 1668) : Louis to have the Catholic Netherlands, 
Franche-Comte, Navarre, the Philippine Islands, the African settle- 
ments, Naples, Sicily and northern Catalonia; Leopold to have Spain, 
the Canary Islands, the Indies, Sardinia, Milan, Finale and the Tuscan 



60 The Spanish Succession. 

presidios ; these terms made impossible by the Treaties of Ryswick. 

The claimants to the Spanish Succession and their claims : Philip, 
Duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV.; the Archduke Charles, 
younger son of the Emperor Leopold ; and the Electoral Prince of Ba- 
varia. (See Appendix V.) 

Charles II. recognized the Electoral Prince of Bavaria as heir to all 
his dominions (1696). 

The First Partition Treaty between William III. and Louis XIV. 
(11 Oct., 1698): the Electoral Prince to have Spain, Sardinia, the 
Indies and the Catholic Netherlands; Charles to have the Milanese; 
Philip to have Naples, Sicily, Finale, the Tuscan presidios and Gui- 
puzcoa; arrangement accepted by Spain; death of the Electoral Prince 
of Bavaria, at Brussels (6 Feb., 1699). 

The Second Partition Treaty between William III. and Louis XIV. 
(13 Mar., 1700): Charles to have Spain, the Indies, the Netherlands 
and Sardinia; Philip to have the same as before, with the addition of the 
Milanese, which was to be exchanged for Lorraine. 

Intrigues around the death bed of the king at Madrid : Charles II. 
made a will leaving all the Spanish possessions to Philip (2 Oct., 
1700) and died (1 Nov., 1700). 

Louis XIV. accepted the will and acknowledged his grandson as 
ruler of all the Spanish dominions (16 Nov., 1700); "the Pyrenees no 
longer exist "; the Duke of Anjou proclaimed King of Spain at Mad- 
rid as Philip V. (24 Nov., 1700); crowned at Madrid (10 Apr., 1701); 
his title was recognized reluctantly by William III.; his marriage to 
Marie Gabrielle of Savoy (n Sept., 1701). 

First mistake of Louis XIV. : introduction of French troops into the 
"barrier fortresses" (6 Feb., 1701); formation of the Grand Alliance (7 
Sept., 1 701) between the Emperor, England, the Dutch and the King 
of Prussia ; second mistake of Louis XIV. : recognition of the Pretender 
as King of England after the death of James II. (17 Sept., 1701); the 
English Parliament enthusiastic for war ; death of William III. (19 
March, 1702) and accession of Queen Anne. 

The Grand Alliance against Louis XIV. joined by the Empire (30 
Sept., 1702); its leading spirits the Duke of Marlborough (b. 1650, d. 
1722); Prince Eugene (b. 1663, d. 1736) in the service of the Emperor; 



War of the Spanish Succession. 61 

and the Grand Pensionary Heinsius (b. 1641, d. 1720); the allies of 
France were the Dukes of Modena, Mantua, Guastalla and Savoy, and 
the Electors of Bavaria and Cologne ; the Duke of Savoy for his alli- 
ance obtained the hand of the new king for his second daughter ; the 
chief French generals were Vendome (b. 1654, d. 17 12); Villars (b. 
1653, d. 1734); Tallard (b. 1652, d. 1728); Villeroi (b. 1644, d. 1730), 
and Berwick (b. 1670, d. 1734). 

The advantages possessed by Louis XIV. at the commencement of 
the War of the Spanish Succesion : central position and centralized 
government. 

Authorities : For Spain during the reign of Charles II., see Dunlop, Memoirs 
of Spain during the Reigns of Philip IV. and Charles II. ; Weiss, L'Espagne depuis 
le regne de Philippe II., jusqu'a. l'avenement des Bourbons; Alexander Stan- 
hope, Spain under Charles II. (1690-99); and Villars, Memoires sur la cour 
d'Espagne (1679-81) and Muret, Lettres ecrites de Madrid en 1666-67, both ed. by 
Morel Fatio. For the diplomatic history of the period, see Macaulay, Sirtema de 
Grovestins, Kemble, and Lexington Papers, cited under Lecture 19 ; Reynald, 
Louis XIV. et Guillame III., histoire des deux traites de partage et du testament 
de Charles II.; Courcy, La coalition de 1701 contre la France, and Renonciation 
des Bourbons au trone d'Bspagne ; Legrelle, La diplomatie francaise et la succes- 
sion d'Espagna ; Hippeau, Avenement des Bourbons au trone d'Espagne, corre- 
spondance inddite du marquis d'Harcourt; Grimblot, Letters of William III. and 
Louis XIV. (1697-1700); Louville, Memoires secrets sur l'etablissement de la 
maison de Bourbon en Espagne; Gadeke, Die Politik (Esterreichs in der spanischen 
Erbfolgegrage, and Mignet, Negociations relatives a. la succession d'Espagne sous 
Louis XIV. (to 1679). 



LECTURE 24. 



THE WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION, 1701-14. 

The War of the Spanish Succession : the four theatres of the war, 
the Netherlands, Germany, Italy and Spain. 

Campaign of 1701 : Eugene turned the position of Catinat in L,om- 
bardy and defeated Villeroi at Chiari (1 Sept.). 



62 War of the Spanish Succession. 

Campaign of 1702 : Eugene surprised Villeroi at Cremona (1 Feb.) ; 
the Dukes of Modena and Guastalla abandoned France ; Veudome de- 
feated Eugene at Luzzara (15 Aug.) ; Louis of Baden invaded Alsace 
and seized Landau (10 Sept.); Bavaria declared war and occupied Ulm 
(8 Sept.) ; Villars defeated Louis of Baden at Friedlingen (14 Oct.) ; 
Marlborough captured Liege and other fortresses on the Meuse. 

Campaign of 1703 : the Emperor recognized his son Charles as King 
of Spain (Sept.); French plan of marching on Vienna ; Francis Rakoczy 
raised an insurrection in Hungary ; critical position of the Emperor ; 
Villars entered Bavaria ; Vendome entered the Tyrol ; Vendome forced 
to retire owing to the conduct of Victor Amadeus of Savoy, who joined 
the Allies (8 Nov.) ; importance of this event ; the Duke received from 
the Emperor Alessandria, Valenza, the Val Sesia and the Lomelline ; 
Villars defeated the Austrians at Hochstadt (21 Sept.) ; Tallard de- 
feated the Imperialists before Spires (14 Nov.) and recaptured Landau 
(17 Nov.) ; Marlborough took Bonn (May) and occupied the Electorate 
of Cologne ; insurrection in the Cevennes of the Protestants, known as 
the " Camisards", under Cavalier ; Portugal joined the Grand Alliance 
(16 May). 

Campaign of 1704 : Vendome conquered Piedmont ; successes of 
Rakoczy ; Marlborough joined Eugene in Bavaria and crushed Tallard 
at Blenheim (13 Aug.) ; Louis of Baden retook Landau (24 Nov.) and 
Marlborough, Treves ; importance of the battle of Blenheim ; Sir 
George Rooke seized Gibraltar (4 Aug.) ; the Archduke Charles landed 
at Lisbon, escorted by an English fleet (May), and was recognized as 
King of Spain by the King of Portugal. 

Campaign of 1705 : Joseph I. succeeded Leopold as Emperor (6 Ma3^); 
his conciliatory policy towards Hungary ; Villars put down the revolt 
in the Cevennes, took Wissembourg and invaded Baden ; Vendome be- 
sieged Turin and defeated Eugene at Cassano (16 Aug.) ; Marlborough 
in the Catholic Netherlands ; Galway invaded Spain from Portugal ; 
Peterborough (b. 1658, d. 1735) took Barcelona (13 Sept.), and Cata- 
lonia declared for the Archduke Charles. 

Campaign of 1706 : Galway occupied Madrid (2 July), but the Span- 
iards rose for Philip V. and drove him out (Aug.) ; Peterborough took 
Valencia and relieved Barcelona ; Eugene defeated Orleans, relieved 



War of the Spanish Sticcession. 63 

Turin, (7 Sept.) and drove the French out of Italy ; Villars retook L,au- 
terbourg and Haguenau ; Marlborough crushed Villeroi at Ramillies 
(23 May) and occupied the Catholic Netherlands. 

Campaign of 1707 : Berwick defeated Galway at Almanza (15 April) ; 
all Spain, except Catalonia, now supported Philip V.; Naples ac- 
knowledged the Archduke Charles ; the Emperor confiscated the duchy 
of Mantua, and granted Montferrat and Casale to the Duke of Savoy, 
but added Mantua to the Milanese ; Eugene and the Duke of Savoy 
invaded France and besieged Toulon ; Villars stormed Stolhofen (23 
May), invaded Germany and invited Charles XII. of Sweden to join 
him ; Marlborough conducted no important military operations, but 
visited Charles XII. and kept him from intervening. 

Campaign of 1708: Rakoczy, utterly defeated, escaped to Poland; 
Stanhope took Port Mahon, in Minorca ; the Austrians, under Daun, 
occupied Naples and Sardinia ; Pope Clement XI. prepared to resist ; 
Vendome conquered the Catholic Netherlands, but was defeated by 
Marlborough and Eugene at Oudenarde ( 1 1 July) ; the Allies invaded 
France ; capture of L,ille (22 Oct.). 

Negotiations of L,ouis XIV. for peace ; the demands of the Allies ; 
Iyouis appealed to France and continued the war. 

Campaign of 1709 : the Pope, by the approach of Austrian troops, 
forced to recognize the Archduke Charles as King of Spain (15 Jan.) , 
Marlborough and Eugene took Tournai (2 Sept.) ; the battle of Mal- 
plaquet (11 Sept.). 

Negotiations of Geertruidenberg. 

Campaign of 1710: Guido Starhemberg and Stanhope (b. 1673, d. 
1 721) defeated Philip V. at Almenara (27 July) and Saragossa (20 Aug.); 
the Archduke Charles occupied Madrid (21 Sept.); Vendome made 
Stanhope prisoner at Brihuega (9 Dec.) and defeated Starhemberg at 
Villa Viciosa (10 Dec.) ; Marlborough and Eugene took Douai (25 
June), Bethune (29 Aug.) and Aire (8 Nov.) ; conquest of Acadia ; 
capture of Port Royal (16 Oct.). 

General weariness of the war : the Tory Ministry formed in Eng- 
land (1710) ; the Archduke Charles succeeded his brother, Joseph I. 
(17 April, 171 1) ; elected Emperor as Charles VI. ; effect of this change. 

Campaign of 171 1 : Marlborough captured Bouchain (12 Sept.); 



64 War of the Spanish Succession. 

Torcy (b. 1665,* d. 1746) and Bolingbroke (b. 1678, d. 1751), the 
French and English ministers, secretly arranged preliminaries of peace ; 
Marlborough removed from the command of the army (31 Dec); Du- 
guay Trouin captured Rio de Janeiro (23 Sept.). 

The congress of plenipotentiaries to decide on terms of peace met at 
Utrecht (Jan., 1712). 

Campaign of 17 12 : truce made by the English (17 July) ; Villars 
defeated Eugene at Denain (24 July) and recaptured Douai (8 Sept.), 
Le Quesnoy (4 Oct.) and Bouchain (18 Oct.). 

The Emperor refused to accept the Treaties of Utrecht, signed 11 
April, 1713, and continued the war. 

Villars took Eandau (20 Aug.) and Freiburg (3 Nov.). 

The Emperor made peace with France at Rastadt (7 March, 17 14); 
the treaty confirmed by the Empire at Baden (7 Sept., 17 14). 

Contrast between the War of the Spanish Succession and the Thirty 
Years' War. 

Authorities : For a short account of the War of the Spanish Succession see 
Stanhope, History of England during the Reign of Queen Anne, 2 vols. Among 
general secondary authorities see Philippson, Das Zeitalter Ludwig's des 
Vierzehnten ; Wyon, History of Great Britain during the Reign of Queen Anne, 
2 vols. ; Coxe, Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon ; Reynald, 
Guerre de la succession d'Espagne ; negotiations entre la France, 1 Angleterre et la 
Hollande (1705-06); Moret, Quinze Ans du regne de Louis XIV., 3 vols.; Noailtes, 
Histoire de Madame de Maintenon, 4 vols. ; Von Noorden, Europaische Geschichte 
im Achtzehnten Jahrhundert, vols. 1-3 ; Krohn, Die letzten Lebensjahre Ludwigs 
XIV. ; Ennen, Der spanische Erbfolgekrieg und der Churfiirst Joseph Clemens von 
Coin ; Gachard, Histoire de la Belgique au commencement du XVIII. siecle ; 
Carutti, Storia del regno di Vittorio Amadeo, and Landau, Geschichte Kaiser 
Karls VI. als Konig von Spanien, and Rome, Wien, Neapel wahrend des spanischer 
Erbfolgekrieges. Among diplomatic secondary authorities see Legrelle, ~L,a. 
diplomatic francaise et la succession d'Espagne, 4 vols., and Une negotiation in- 
connue entre Berwick et Marlborough (1708-9) ; Fazy, Des Suisses et la neutrality 
de Savoie (1703-4) ; Hilt, Diplomatic Correspondence from the Court of Savoy 
(July, 1703, to May, 1706), ed. B lack ley ; D'Haussonville, La duchesse de Bour- 
gogne et l'alliance savoyarde sous Louis XIV. ; Cooke, Memoirs of Lord Boling- 
broke, and Gddeke, Die Politik (Esterreichs in der spanischen Erbfolgefrage. 
Among military secondary authorities see Coxe, Memoirs of the Duke of 
Marlborough, 6 vols.; Alison, Military Life of the Duke of Marlborough ; Stan- 
hope, History of the War of the Succession in Spain ; Pamell, The War of the 



The Treaties of Utrecht. 65 

Succession in Spain ; Wilson, The Duke of Berwick, Marshal of France ; Vogue", 
Villars; Du Casse, L'amiral Du Casse (1646-1715) ; Malleson, Prince Eugene of 
Savoy; Babeau, Da marechal de Villars, gouverneur de Provence; Court de Gebelin, 
Histoire des troubles des Cevennes ; Arneth, Prinz Eugen von Savoyen, 3 vols., 
and Deben des Feldmarschalls Graf Guido Stahremberg ; and Ottieri, Istoria delle 
guerre avvenute in Europa e particolaramente in Italia (1696-1725), 5 vols. The 
chief primary authorities are Pelet, Memoires militaires relatifs a. la succession 
d'Espagne, 11 vols. (Collection des Documents inedits), and Matuschka, Feldziige 
des Prinzen Eugen von Savoyen, 17 vols. ; Heller, Militarische Korrespondenz des 
Prinzen Eugen von Savoyen (1694-1705), 3 vols.; Bellerive, Histoire des dernieres 
campagnes du Due de Vendosme ; but see also Baudrillart, Philippe V. d'Espagne 
et la cour de France, 3 vols. ; Murray, Letters and Despatches of Marlborough, 5 
vols.; Rambuteau, Dettres du marechal de Tesse (1701-14); Rodervon Diersburg, 
Kriegs- und Staats-schriften des Markgrafen Dudwig Wilhelm von Baden iiber den 
spanischen Erbfolgekrieg ; Fiedler, Actenstiicke zur Geschichte Franz Rakdczy's 
(Fontes rerum Austriacarum, vols. ix. and xvii. ); Lamberty, Memoires pour servir 
a l'histoire du XVIIIieme siecle, 14 vols., and the Memoires of Berwick, Villars, 
Duguay-Trouin, Forbin and Torcy, with the Journal inedit, 1709-1711, of Torcy, 
edited by Masson. 



LECTURE 25. 



THE TREATIES OF UTRECHT. 

The first negotiations made by Louis XIV. after Ramillies (1706) ; 
his attempt to detach the Dutch from the Grand Alliance ; refusal of 
the Grand Pensionary, Heinsius, to treat separately (19 Nov.). 

Second negotiations at the Hague with the Allies after Oudenarde and 
the loss of Lille (May-June, 1709) ; hard terms offered to Louis XIV. 
(28 May) ; his refusal to accept them (2 June). 

Conference at Geertruidenberg after Malplaquet (March-July, 17 10) ; 
Louis XIV. willing to accept the terms offered at the Hague ; the con- 
ference broken up (25 July). 

Effect on the situation of the accession of the Tories to power in Eng- 
land (1710) and of the recall of Marlborough (171 1). 

Death of the Dauphin (14 April, 171 1). 

Congress for peace opened at Utrecht (12 Jan., 1712) ; the chief pleni- 



66 The Treaties of Utrecht. 

potentiaries, Torcy for France, Bolingbroke for England, Heinsius for 
the Protestant Netherlands and Mellarede for Savoy ; progress of the 
negotiations ; treaties of peace signed between France, England, the 
Netherlands, Prussia and Savoy, at Utrecht (n April, 1713) ; the 
Emperor Charles VI. continued at war with France and Spain. 

Treaties signed between France and the Emperor at Rastadt (7 March, 
1714), confirmed by the Empire at Baden (7 Sept., 1714), and between 
Spain and Portugal at Madrid (6 Feb., ^715); but theEmpeior made no 
peace with Spain and refused to acknowledge Philip V. 

The whole series may be considered together as the Treaties of 
Utrecht. 

Chief provisions: A. The Spanish succession, i. Philip V. recog- 
nized as King of Spain and the Indies, on condition that the crowns of 
Spain and France should never be united, it. The Emperor Charles 
VI. received the Milanese, Naples, Sardinia and the Catholic Nether- 
lands, iii. Victor Amadeus II. of Savoy received Sicily, iv. England 
received Gibraltar and Minorca. 

B. Louis XIV. of France restored Tournai, Ypres and Furnes to the 
Catholic Netherlands, but in other respects maintained his borders as 
settled by the Treaties of Ryswick ; the principality of Orange in the 
south of France, which had belonged to William III., was granted to 
Louis XIV.; he ceded Acadia (Nova Scotia) to England, recognized 
the Protestant Succession, and promised to expel the Stuart Pretender 
and to dismantle Dunkirk. 

C. England received Gibraltar and Minorca from Spain, and Acadia 
from France ; her sovereignty in Newfoundland (subject to certain fish- 
ing rights) and Hudson's Bay recognized; the Protestant succession in 
the line of Hanover acknowledged ; and by an Assiento she obtained 
certain rights of commerce with Spanish South America. 

D. The Emperor Charles VI. received the Catholic Netherlands, sub- 
ject to an arrangement with the Dutch; Naples, with the Tuscan pre- 
sidios, which were governed from Naples until 1801 ; Sardinia ; the 
Milanese, together with Mantua, whose last Gonzaga duke had died 
in 1708 ; and Finale, which he sold to Genoa on 20 August, 1713. 

E. The creation of the Electorate of Hanover (1692) recognized. 

F. The Elector of Bavaria and the Elector- Archbishop of Cologne, 
Prince Joseph Clement of Bavaria, restored to their dominions. 



The Treaties of Utrecht. &7 

G. The title of the King of Prussia recognized; in satisfaction of his 
claims as heir to William III., he received Upper or Spanish Gelder- 
land and was confirmed in the possession of Neufchatel. 

H. The Dutch have the closing of the Scheldt to commerce and their 
right to garrison the eight "barrier fortresses" in the Catholic Nether- 
lands — Charleroi, Furnes, Ghent, Menin, Mons, Namur, Tournai and 
Ypres — confirmed. 

I. Victor Amadeus II., Duke of Savoy, had the cessions of Alessan- 
dria, Valenza, the Val Sesia and the IyOmelline, granted in 1703, and of 
Casale and Montferrat, granted in 1707 from the duchy of Mantua, 
confirmed, and received Sicily, with the title of King of Sicily. 

J. The Catalans abandoned. 

Importance of the Treaties of Utrecht : comparison with the Treaties 
of Westphalia ; the most notable points ; France left upon the Rhine and 
in close alliance with Spain; England showed further development in 
the direction of commerce and colonies ; the dominions of the House of 
Hapsburg became nominally larger but more unwieldy and less Ger- 
man; Spain lost its Italian and Belgian possessions and was confined, 
in Europe, to the Peninsula ; Brandenburg took a step in advance 
among the nations in becoming the kingdom of Prussia, and Savoy 
also became a kingdom with its chief interests in Italy. 

The doctrine of the Balance of Power in the Treaties of Utrecht ; 
neglect of the Principle of Nationality. 

Authorities : Most of the general and diplomatic secondary authorities 
cited under Lectures 23 and 24 devote much space to the Treaties of Utrecht. Good 
special volumes have been written by Gerard, The Treaty of Utrecht; Giraud, Le 
traits' d'Utrecht, and Weber, Der Friede von Utrecht, and a primary authority 
of importance is Torcy, Memoires. 



LECTURE 26. 



GERMANY TO 1715. 

Comparison between the condition of Germany after the Treaties of 
Utrecht and the Treaties of Westphalia. 



68 The Holy Roman Empire to 1715. 

The Holy Roman Empire : constant election of the chief of the 
House of Austria to be Emperor owing to the votes he commanded as 
the leading Catholic power ; decreasing influence of the Emperors in 
German affairs; the perpetual capitulation; changes in the constitution 
of the Empire. 

i. Recognition of Prussia as a kingdom: the Emperor Leopold 
agreed to give the Elector Frederick of Brandenburg the 
title of King of Prussia, as Prussia was a state independent 
of the Empire, in return for assistance in the War of the 
Spanish Succession; the other powers of Europe recognized 
the title by the Treaties of Utrecht; as a member of the 
Empire he remained Elector of Brandenburg. 
ii. College of Electors: the Emperor Leopold made the Duke of 
Hanover an Elector (1692), at the same time restoring the 
full electoral powers to the kingdom of Bohemia ; opposition 
of the other Electors and of the Princes of the Empire ; 
league formed against the new electorate ( 1 700) ; the Emperor 
promised to make no further electorates without the consent 
of the Empire (1706) ; electorate of Hanover accepted by the 
Diet (1710). 
in. College of Princes : the Emperor's right to create new Princes 
limited (1654) ; settlement of the " collegiate " votes ; crea- 
tion of new Princes made still more difficult and dependent 
on the consent of the Electoral College, the Princely College 
and his Bench(i7ii) ; growth of the custom of primogeni- 
ture and its effect in causing the accumulation of votes ; ex- 
ception of Saxony. 
iv. College of Free Cities : its decay owing to the falling off in the 
prosperity of the cities ; only the three Hansa cities remained 
powerful ; conquest of Miinster by Bishop Galen (1661), of 
Erfurt by the Elector of Mayence (1664), of Magdeburg by 
the Elector of Brandenburg (1666), of Brunswick by the 
Duke of Brunswick (1671) and seizure of Strasburg by Louis 
XIV. (1681) ; general tendency of the Free Cities to decline 
in importance. 
v. The Imperial Diet: its policy after it became perpetual and 



Austria to 1J15. 69 

attended only by envoys ; disputes about precedence ; its 
cumbrous procedure ; inefficiency of its military action. 
vi. The Imperial Chamber : its seat moved from Spires, after the 
burning of that city by the French in the devastation of the 
Palatinate in 1689, to Wetzlar in 1691 ; quarrels among the 
assessors; the Chamber dissolved (1700) ; its reorganization. 
viz. The Aulic Council : its claim to deal with cases concerning 

States. 
viii. The religious question : the application of the doctrine ' ' cujiis 
regio, ejus religio ' ' ; failure of the modifications arranged by 
the Treaties of Westphalia ; the persecution of the Protest- 
ants in the Palatinate. 
ix. The question of coinage : agreement made between Saxony, 
Brandenburg and Brunswick at Zinna (1667) and at Leipzig 
(1690). 
x. The Gregorian Calendar adopted by the Protestant States by 
a decree of the Diet (1700). 
Austria : additional dominions gained by the Treaties of Utrecht, no 
additional strength ; the more valuable gains of the Treaty of Carlowitz 
in Hungary and Transylvania tended to turn its policy still more to- 
wards the East ; internal administration ; the rebellion of Francis 
Rakoczy, grandson of George Rakoczy II. , Prince of Transylvania and 
stepson of Tokoli, in Hungary (1703-11) ; the brief reign of Joseph 
I. (1705-11) ; his concessions to the Hungarians and consequent over- 
throw of Rakoczy ; his concessions to the Protestants of Silesia at the 
request of Charles XII. of Sweden ; his penal code and the promise of 
his reign ; the Emperor Charles VI. crowned King of Fluugary (1712) ; 
his settlement of Hungary. 

Prussia : the aims of Frederick III., Elector of Brandenburg (1688- 
17 13), to become a king and to increase his dominions ; his character ; 
his policy. 

i. His foreign policy : he pursued the ideas of the Great Elector; 
he joined the League of Augsburg (1688) and sent 15,000 
men to serve under William III. against France (1691-97) ; 
he sent 6,000 men to assist the Emperor against the Turks 
(1691-99) ; he sent 26,000 men to serve through the War of 



70 Prussia to 1715. 

the Spanish Succession (1702-13) ; his conduct in the North - 
ernWar ; his propositions to Peter the Great for a partition of 
Poland. 

ii. His arrangements for the title of king : he promised aid in the 
War of the Spanish Succession, to excuse the Emperor's debts 
to him, to vote for an Austrian prince for Emperor, and to 
use only his title as Elector in the Imperial Diet ; he crowned 
himself at Konigsberg as Frederick L, King of Prussia (18 
Jan., 1 701) ; importance of this step ; the title recognized by 
the Treaties of Utrecht. 
in. His territorial policy : he restored Schwebus to Austria with- 
out abandoning his claims on Silesia (1694); he purchased 
Nordhausen of the Elector of Saxony (1697); ne t 00 ^ P os " 
session of Elbing in Polish Prussia (1703) ; he occupied 
Mceurs, Lingen, Heristal and Turnhout, as heir of William 
III. (1702), and they were confirmed to him by the Emperor 
(1707) ; he seized Upper Gelderland (1703), which was ceded 
to Prussia, in compensation for the loss of the principality of 
Orange, by the Treaties of Utrecht ; he was elected Prince 
of Neufchatel (1707) and purchased the county of Tecklen- 
burg (1707). 
iv. His internal policy : he followed the lines of the Great Elector 
and prepared the way for Frederick William I.; foundation 
of the University of Halle (1694). 

v. Accession of Frederick William I. (25 Feb., 17 13): by the 
Treaties of Utrecht his royal title was recognized and his 
possession of Neufchatel and Upper Gelderland confirmed ; 
he occupied Stettin and Wismar in sequestration during the 
war against Sweden. 
Other states of Germany : 

i. Electoral Saxony : division made on the death of John George 
I. (1656); its prosperity sacrificed to the Polish policy of 
Augustus I.; when elected King of Poland (1697) ^ e be- 
came a Catholic, but was yet allowed to remain the Director 
of the Protestant party in the Diet, his change of faith be- 
ing personal and not political ; by a convention (1700) re- 
ligious matters were left to the Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels. 



Germany to 17 15. 71 

h Ducal Saxony : the rule of Duke Ernest the Pious of Saxe- 
Gotha (1640-74); further division made (1680), but no more 
votes allowed in the College of Princes. 

Hi. Bavaria : Ferdinand Maria, Elector (1651-79) ; his refusal to 
be a candidate for the Empire (1657); quarrels with the 
Elector Palatine about the Vicariate of the Empire ; no Ba- 
varian Diet or Landtag summoned after 1669 ; Maximilian 
Emmanuel, Elector (1 679-1 726); candidature of his son, the 
Electoral Prince, for the throne of Spain ; joined Louis 
XIV. in the War of the Spanish Succession ; his campaigns 
in the Tyrol ; put to the ban of the Empire, and from the 
battle of Blenheim in 1704 to 17 14 Bavaria was administered 
by the Emperors ; he acted as Governor- General of the 
Spanish Netherlands under Charles II. from 1692 to 1701, 
and again under Philip V. from 1702 until driven out after 
the battle of Ramillies (1706); restored to his dominions by 
the Treaty of Rastadt ; condition of Bavaria under Austrian 
rule. 

iv. The Palatinate : the last Protestant Electors of the House of 
Simmern, Charles Louis I. (1648-80) and Charles Louis II. 
(1680-85); Charles Louis I. joined the league against Louis 
XIV. (1672); devastation of the Palatinate by Turenne 
(1675); the question of the succession (1685); the claims of 
Louis XIV. ; Philip William of Neuburg succeeded ; fresh 
devastation of the Palatinate by Duras (1689); destruction of 
Heidelberg, Mannheim, Spires, etc. ; accession of John Wil- 
liam (1691); his ardent Catholicism; persecution of the 
Protestants ; extensive emigration ; Philip William paid 
300,000 scudi (a scudo at this time almost equalled a dollar) 
to Louis XIV. to compensate for his claims ; his internal 
government ; he moved his capital from Heidelberg to Mann- 
heim (1720). 
v. Hanover : character and career of Ernest Augustus (b. 1629), 
fourth son of the Duke of Brunswick-Liineburg and first 
Elector of Hanover ; married Sophia, daughter of Frederick 
V., Elector Palatine, and grand-daughter of James I., of 



72 Germany to 1715. 

England (1658); his reputation as a statesman and a soldier ; 
he made peace between England and the Dutch (1667); De " 
came William III.'s chief German ally, and his intermediary 
with Brandenburg and the Emperor ; he took the title of 
Duke of Hanover (1679); helped to form the League of Augs- 
burg (1688), and was made Elector of Hanover (1692); his 
share in the Treaty of Ryswick ; established primogeniture 
in his family ; his death (1697) > tne Elector George I.; his 
increased importance in German affairs after his mother was 
recognized by the English Parliament as heir to England 
(1701); he united the Duchy of Zell (1705); his policy ; his 
territorial importance between Brandenburg and the United 
Provinces ; his attitude toward France and the Emperor ; 
admitted to the Diet as an Elector (17 10); the Hanoverian 
succession to Great Britain recognized by the Treaties of 
Utrecht (1713); death of the Electress Sophia (8 June, 1714); 
George I. succeeded Queen Anne in England (1 Aug., 1714). 
vi. The ecclesiastical Electors and Princes of the Empire: methods 
of their government ; restrained by the capitulations made 
with them at their election by the chapters ; the power of 
the chapters ; large sums paid to the Popes. 
The petty princes of Germany : their imitation of Louis XIV. in 
their absolutism, in refusing to summon or consult their Estates or 
Diets, in their extravagance and in their court ceremonials. 

Authorities : For the condition of Germany in 1715 in addition to works like 
those of Lkger, cited under Lecture 9, dealing with general history, see Bieder- 
mann, Deutschland im achtzehnten Jahrhundert : Vol. i., Deutschlands politische, 
materielle und sociale Zustande ; for the Empire, see Putter, Historical Develop- 
ment of the Constitution of the Germanic Empire, translated by Domford, vol. 
ii. ; for the relations between Austria and Prussia, Pribram, CEsterreich und Bran- 
denburg (t68i-86) and CEsterreich und Brandenburg (16S8-1700) ; for Austria, 
Krones, Handbuch der Geschichte CEsterreichs, 5 vols. ; Mailath, Geschichte der (Es- 
terreichischen Kaiserstaats ; Huber, Geschichte der (Esterreichischen Verwaltungs- 
organisation ; Coxe, History of the House of Austria, 4 vols., and Bidermann, Ge- 
schichte der (Esterreichischen Gesammt-Staats-Idee ; for Prussia, in addition to the 
general works cited under Lecture 18, Ledebur, Konig Friedrich I. von Preussen ; 
Waddington, L'acquisition de la couronne royale de Prusse par les Hohenzollern ; 



The Mediterranean in IJ15. 73 

Varnhagen von Ense, L,eben der Konigin Sophie Charlotte, 3 vols.; Dohna, 
Memoires originaux sur le regne et la cour de Frederic I. ; Bourgeois, Neufchatel 
et la politique prussienne en Franche-Comte (1702-13), and Lavisse, Etudes sur 
l'histoire de Prusse; for Electoral Saxony, Bdttiger, Geschichte des Kurstaates und 
Konigreichs Sachsen, 3 vols. ; for Ducal Saxony, Getbke, Herzog Ernst der Erste, 
genannt der Fromme, and Beck, Ernst der Fromme ; for Bavaria, Schreiber, 
Geschichte Bayerns, 2 vols.; for the Palatinate, Haiisser, Geschichte der rhein- 
ischen Pfalz, 2 vols, and for Hanover, Heinemann, Geschichte von Braunschweig 
und Hannover; Kdcher, Geschichte von Hannover und Braunschweig (1648-1714) 
and Memoiren der Kurfiirstin Sophie von Hannover ; Leibnitz, Correspondance 
avec l'electrice Sophie, vols. 7-9 of his Werke, and Spittler, Geschichte des Fiir- 
stenthums Hannover in vols. 6 and 7 of his Sammtliche Werke. 



LECTURE 27. 



THE SOUTHERN COUNTRIES OF EUROPE TO 1715. 

Decreasing naval importance of the Mediterranean countries : trie 
commerce of the Levant passed to the Dutch and the English ; after 
the loss of Candia, Venice became an Adriatic instead of a Mediter- 
ranean power ; injury inflicted by the Barbary corsairs ; efforts of Louis 
XIV. to become master of the Mediterranean ; the Dutch and English 
fleets in that sea ; significance of the capture of Gibraltar by the Eng- 
lish (1704); the English became the preponderating naval power in the 
Mediterranean by the cession of Gibraltar and Minorca (1713). 

The Turkish power after the Treaty of Carlowitz (1699). 

The reign of Mustapha II. (1 695-1 703): his military disasters com- 
pensated by his naval successes over the Venetians ; while surrender- 
ing the Adriatic and the Morea to Venice, and Hungary, except the 
Banat, to the Emperor, the Turks retained the islands of the Archipe- 
lago and the control over the Levant ; Hussain Kiuprili, Grand Vizier 
( 1 697-1 702); he endeavored to reorganize the Turkish army and navy; 
he reduced Bussora, pacified North Africa and regulated Turkish au- 
thority in Arabia ; the Turks begin to be influenced by European ideas 
and to translate European books ; revolt of the Janissaries and over- 
throw of Mustapha II. (1703). 



74 Italy to 171^, 

Early years of the reign of Ahmad III. (1703-30): he announced his 
accession to the Christian powers ; Charles XII. of Sweden induced the 
Sultan to attack Russia ; the Treaty of the Pruth (11 July, 171 1) ; the 
government of the Danubian provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia ; 
after 17 16 in Wallachia and 171 1 in Moldavia the Sultan appointed hos- 
podars of these two provinces from Greek families instead of from the 
national nobility. 

Italy during the half century before the Treaties of Utrecht. 

I. The Popes abandoned the territorial aggrandizement of the States 
of the Church ; their attitude towards the Catholic powers, and partic- 
ulary towards Austria, France and Spain ; loss of their political influ- 
ence ; Clement IX. — Rospigliosi — 1667-70 ; his friendly relations with 
France; Clement X. — Altieri — 1670-76; Quebec made a bishopric (1676); 
Innocent XL — Odescalchi — 1676-89; his endeavors to reform abuses; his 
abandonment of nepotism ; his quarrels with Louis XIV. ; Alexander 
VIII. — Ottoboni — 1689-91 ; made peace with Louis XIV. ; Innocent 
XII. — Pignatelli — 1691-1700 ; his economy and uprightness ; his atti- 
tude towards France ; Clement XL — Albani — 1700-21 ; his attitude on 
the Spanish Succession ; forced to recognize the Archduke Charles ; 
issue of the bull "Unigenitus" (1713) ; action of the Papacy during 
this period towards the Jansenists, the Jesuits and the Quietists. 

II. Kingdom of Naples : its welcome to the Archduke Charles (1707); 
his promise to observe its local rights ; separated from Sicily by the 
Treaties of Utrecht (1713) and given to the House of Austria. 

III. Kingdom of Sicily : given to Victor Amadeus II., Duke of 
Savoy, by the Treaties of Utrecht ; the character of Victor Amadeus 
II. ; crowned at Palermo (24 Dec, 1713) ; growth of the House of 
Savoy by his policy ; he acquired Alessandria, etc. (1703), Montferrat 
and Casale (1707), and the restoration of Savoy and Nice (17 13) ; mar- 
riage of his two daughters to two grandsons of Louis XIV., to the Duke 
of Burgundy, father of Louis XV., and to Philip V. of Spain ; his inter- 
nal policy ; his encouragement of public works ; his code of laws ; his 
quarrel with Pope Clement XL ; taxation of ecclesiastical property. 

IV. The Northern Duchies: Cosmo III., Grand Duke of Tuscany 
(1670-1723), last ruler but one of the House of Medici; his payment of 
large sums to remain neutral during the War of the Spanish Succession; 



Spain and Portugal to 1715. 75 

bad management of his duchy and misery of his people; Francesco, Duke 
of Parma, remained neutral during the War of the Spanish Succession, 
but Rainaldo, Duke of Modena, took part in it and obtained the Duchy 
of Mirandola from the Emperor ; the Duchy of Mantua divided ; Man- 
tua given to Milan and Montferrat to Savoy in 1707 by the Emperor, 
because Charles IV. — Gonzaga — supported L,ouis XIV. in the War of 
the Spanish Succession, but a small district given to the Duke of Guas- 
talla, who supported the Emperor ; Milan and Mantua granted to the 
Emperor by the Treaties of Utrecht (1713). 

V. Venice: successes obtained by Morosini in the war against the 
Turks ; by the Treaty of Carlowitz the Republic obtained the Morea, 
the Ionian Islands and Dalmatia, and became the preponderant power 
on the coasts of the Adriatic ; close alliance formed between the Em- 
peror and the Venetians. 

VI. Genoa : its independence threatened by the Dukes of Savoy ; 
conspiracy of Raphael della Torre (1672) ; bombarded by a French fleet 
(1684) ; the Doge Imperiali at Versailles (Feb., 1685). 

Switzerland : the Swiss Confederation ; the thirteen cantons ; the 
central and the cantonal governments ; division into Catholic and Prot- 
estant, and into oligarchic and democratic, cantons ; the Swiss mercen- 
ary soldiers ; the independent republics of the Grisons (Graubiinden) 
and of Geneva. 

Spain : the reign of Philip V ; his reception in Spain ; influenced by 
his wife Marie Gabrielle of Savoy, who was controlled by the Princess 
Orsini or Des Ursins ; interference of L,ouis XIV. in the internal affairs 
of Spain ; administration of Amelot (1705-09), the French ambassador; 
the War of the Spanish Succession in Spain ; Philip V. twice driven 
from Madrid ; enthusiasm of the Spaniards for him and his queen ; by 
the Treaties of Utrecht Spain lost her continental possessions as well as 
Gibraltar and Minorca ; treatment of the Catalans ; the Catalans organ- 
ized a republic ; gallant defence of Barcelona ; captured by Berwick 
(12 Sept., 1 7 14) ; death of the queen (14 Feb., 1714) ; influence and 
character of Madame des Ursins (b. 1641, d. 1722). 

Portugal : the reign of Pedro II. (1685-1706) ; the signature of the 
Methuen Treaty with England (27 Dec, 1703) ; its results ; part taken 
by Portugal in the War of the Spanish Succession ; accession of John V. 
(1706) 



76 The Jesuits. 

Authorities : For the Turks see the books cited for Lecture 13 ; for Italy, the 
books cited for Lecture 14, with Michaud, Louis XIV. et Innocent XI., 4 vols., 
and Carutti, Storia del regno di Vittorio Amadeo II.; for Spain, Legrelle, Bau- 
drillart, Stanhope, Parnett, Rambtdeau and Berwick, cited under Lectures 23 and 
24, with Coxe, Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon, vols. 1, 
2; Correspondance de Louis XIV. avec M. Amelot, ed. Girardot ; Combes, La 
Princesse des Ursins, the Princess des Ursins, Correspondance avec Madame de 
Maintenon, and Lettres inddites, ed. Geffroy; and the M^moires of Saint-Simon; 
for Portugal, see Oliveira Martins, cited under Lecture 15. 



LECTURE 28. 



THE PAPACY IN THE 17TH CENTURY: THE JESUITS AND THE 

JANSENISTS. 

The spiritual power of the Papacy in the 17th century as opposed to 
its political and territorial power. 

Gradual decline in the spiritual power to be observed in the first half 
of the 17th century, the Age of the Thirty Years' War, when political 
considerations were becoming paramount over religious considerations ; 
more rapid decline during the latter half of the century, when Catholic 
monarchs, like Louis XIV., openly quarrelled with the Pope, and tried 
to check his spiritual authority. 

The effect of the Counter- Reformation on the position of the Papacy: 
its chief agents the Jesuits ; with the decline of the Jesuits from their 
original energy the Counter- Reformation died away. 
The main lines of the work of the Jesuits : 

i. Education : success of their method of teaching ; their col- 
leges and universities ; they controlled higher education in 
Catholic countries. 
ii. The Confessional : they become the confessors of kings and 
statesmen ; Pere La Chaise, Pere Letellier and Pere Nithard. 
Hi. Missions. A. Among the Protestants : their work in Eng- 
land, Sweden and Poland. B. Among the heathen : in 
Asia, in India and China ; in America, in Canada and Para- 
guay. 



Jesuits and Jansenists. 77 

The decline in Jesuit energy after the death of General Acquaviva 
(1615): the generalship of Muzio Vitelleschi (1615-45); "professed" 
members began to accept offices of power ; education ceased to be gen- 
erally free ; devotion to the prosperity of the Society took the place of 
devotion to the Papacy ; limitation of the general's power (1661); 
the Society interested in commerce ; its commercial center at Lisbon ; 
the Society supported absolutism against the Papacy ; it supported 
L-ouis XIV. against Innocent XL; opposed by the Jansenist influ- 
ence ; Pere I^a Chaise and Archbishop Harlay of Paris ; Innocent 
XI. and Alexander VIII. endeavored to check the power of the Society 
and went so far as to forbid its admitting novices : Clement XI. con- 
demned its practices in foreign missions in Asia (17 15). 

The Jesuit theology : the adoption of ' ' free will ' ' doctrines ; the Do- 
minicans quarrel with them for differing from St. Thomas Aquinas ; 
growth of casuistry ; its application to politics and the result ; to 
private life ; the Lettres Provinciates of Pascal (b. 1623, d. 1662) 
overthrew the belief in scholastic morality ; the theological dis- 
tinction between the Jesuits and the Jansenists ; Pere L,etellier and 
Archbishop Noailles of Paris ; after the issue of the bull Unigenitus 
the Jesuits rallied to the Papacy and became Ultramontane. 

The Jansenists : their doctrines a reaction against the theology of the 
Jesuits ; their nickname of Catholic Puritans ; the Augustinus of Cor- 
nelius Jansen, Bishop of Ypres, published in 1640, after his death ; its 
theological views ; the doctrines of grace, sin and forgiveness ; its 
rapid success, even among priests and bishops, but still more among 
the educated laity of France and the Catholic Netherlands; Duvergier, 
Abbe de Saint-Cyran ; his application of Jansenist views to life ; his 
influence on Angelique Arnauld (b. 1591, d. 165 1); Port Royal ; his 
imprisonment by Richelieu (1638-42); the Jansenists implicated in the 
Fronde ; their quarrel with the Jesuits ; Port Royal the home of moral 
and intellectual France ; the influence exerted by Arnauld (b. 1612, d. 
1694), Nicole, Lemaitre de Sacy, Pascal and Racine ; the publication of 
the Port Royal educational works ; influence possessed by the Jansen- 
ists in France. 

First struggle with the Papacy (1642-69): Urban VIII. condemned 
Jansen's Augustinus (1642); the "five propositions" declared heret- 



78 The Jansenists. 

ical by the bull In Occasione, issued by Innocent X. (31 May, 1653); Ar- 
nauld denied that the " five propositions" were contained in the book by 
Jansen ; Alexander VII. declared that they were ; the Jansenist writers 
denied the infallibility of the Pope in dealing with matters of fact; Louis 
XIV. imprisoned De Sacy and persecuted the Jansenists, including the 
nuns of Port Royal ; Clement IX. made the " Peace of Clement IX." 
(1668), when the Jansenists agreed to condemn the " five propositions " 
without acknowledging whether they were contained in Jansen's book 
or not. 

In spite of the King's dislike of them, the Jansenists became more 
powerful in France, especially in bourgeois and legal circles. 

Second struggle with the Papacy (1702-15): the Reflexions morales 
of Quesnel and the Cas de conscie?ice ; Archbishop Noailles manifested 
moderate Jansenist opinions ; he distinguished between human and di- 
vine faith in the Pope's infallibility on questions of fact ; opposition of 
Pere Letellier, the King's confessor, and the Jesuits ; they appealed to 
Rome ; Clement XL tried to settle the question by the bull Vineam 
Domini (15 July, 1705); the nuns of Port Royal refused to accept the 
bull ; the community suppressed (11 July, 1709) and Port Royal or- 
dered to be destroyed (22 Jan., 1710); persecution of the Jansenists; 
use of lettres de cachet ; 101 propositions from Quesnel's book condemned 
by the bull Unigenitus (8 Sept., 1713); the Parlement of Paris, led by 
D' Aguesseau, declined to register the bull as law without modifications ; 
Noailles and fifteen bishops refused to accept it ; a council summoned 
to depose them ; the}' were saved by the death of Louis XIV. 

The Quietists : Molinos and his doctrines ; condemned by Pope Inno- 
cent XL (1687) ; Madame Guyon ; her mysticism ; her relations with 
Fenelon ; controvers}^ between Bossuet and Fenelon ; Innocent XII. 
condemned Fenelon's Explications des Maximes des Saints (1699); 
Louis XIV. and his attitude towards the Quietists. 

Marie Alacoque (b. 1647, d. 1690) and the worship of the Sacred 
Heart ; the Abbe de Ranee (b. 1626, d. 1700) and the monastery of La 
Trappe. 

Authorities : For an account in English of the Jansenist movement see Beard, 
Port Royal, 2 vols. Among secondary authorities consult Cretineau-Joly, 
Histoire religieuse, politique et litt^raire de la compagnie de Jesus, 6 vols.; Rapin, 



Madame de Maintenon. 79 

Histoire du Jans£nisme; Sainte-Beuve, Port Royal, 7 vols.; Reuchlin, Geschichte 
von Port Royal, 2 vols.; Soyres, The Provincial Letters of Pascal; Victor Cousin, 
Jacqueline Pascal ; Lafitau, Histoire de la Constitution Unigenitus; Le Roy, Le Gal- 
licanisme au XVIII 6 siecle ; la France et Rome de 1700 a 171 5 ; histoire diploma- 
tique de la bulle Unigenitus jusqu'a la mort de Louis XIV.; Bigelow, Molinos the 
Quietist; Guerrier, Madame Guyon, sa vie, sa doctrine et son influence; Matter, 
Le mysticisme en France au temps de Fenelon; Bausset, Histoire de Bossuet, 4 
vols., and Histoire de Fenelon, 4 vols.; Reaume, Histoire de Bossuet, 3 vols.; 
Phelipeaux, Relation de l'origine, du progres et de la condamnation du Onietisme; 
Dubois, Histoire de l'abbe de Ranee, with the works of Amauid, fasccu, Madame 
Guyon, Bossuet and Fenelon. 



LECTURE 29. 



THE LAST YEARS OF THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV. 

The government of France during the last thirty years of the reign of 
Louis XIV. influenced by Madame de Maintenon, but carried on by the 
King in spite of his decreasing powers and increasing belief in himself; 
he devoted himself more and more to foreign politics and the question 
of the Spanish Succession, leaving internal administration to his minis- 
ters, who inherited the offices of Colbert and Louvois without their 
ability. 

The change in the King's character between the Treaties of Nimeguen 
and the outbreak of war with the League of Augsburg : Louis XIV. 
becomes moral and religious ; the gaiety of the Court disappears ; it 
becomes more ceremonious ; the King governed by Madame de Main- 
tenon and his confessors ; the great result of this change of character, 
the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685). 

Character and position of Francoise d'Aubigne, Madame de Main- 
tenon (b. 1635, d. 1719): her previous career; her rivalry with Madame 
de Montespan; reconciled the king and queen together; after the death 
of the queen (1683), secretly married to Louis XIV.; nature of her 
influence at court ; her ardent zeal for the Catholic religion and 
prudery; her difficult position; her foundation of Saint Cyr. 



80 Last Years of Louis XIV. 

Character and influence of Pere La Chaise, confessor of Louis XIV. 
(1675-1709), and of his successor, Pere Letellier (1709-15); they 
directed the ecclesiastical policy of the king in favor of the Jesuits; the 
persecution of the Huguenots and the Jansenists. 

The ministers of the last years of Louis XIV. : their inability to con- 
trol or oppose the King; they acted as head clerks and feared responsi- 
bility; the typical minister, Michel de Chamillart; the last ministers; 
Boucherat (1685-99J, Louis Phelypeaux, Comte de Pontchartrain 
(1699-1714) and Daniel Voysin (1714-15), Chancellors; Torcy (1696- 
1715), foreign affairs; Le Peletier (1684-89), Louis, Comte de Pontchar- 
train (1689-99), Chamillart (1699-1708) and Desmarets (1708-15), 
finances; Barbezieux (1691-1701), Chamillart (1701-1709) and Daniel 
Voysin (1709-14), war; Louis, Comte de Pontchartrain (1690-93), and 
Jerome, Comte de Pontchartrain (1693-17 15), marine. 

The French nation approved the successful war of 1688-97 against 
the League of Augsburg, but welcomed the Treaties of Ryswick; gen- 
eral delight at the acceptance of the Spanish Succession for the Duke 
of Anjou; " the Pyrenees have ceased to exist"; confidence felt by the 
people in the success of Louis XIV. 

Surprise felt at the defeats of Blenheim and Ramillies; general dis- 
content at the mismanagement of Chamillart; his financial methods; 
the creation and sale of sinecure offices; Chamillart made the scapegoat 
and succeeded by Desmarets, the nephew of Colbert (1708); improve- 
ment of credit; the loans of Desmarets; the armies thus raised defeated; 
despair of the French people after the defeat of Oudenarde. 

The terrible winter of 1708- 1709: general misery of the people; the 
loss of Lille left the way open to Paris ; the appeal of Louis XIV. to 
his people, on the advice of Torcy; France rallied round the King ; vol- 
untary gifts to the royal treasury; melting down of the royal plate; 
ladies contributed their jewelry ; result of the wave of enthusiasm, to 
make Louis XIV. persist in his resistance ; effect of the battle of Mal- 
plaquet ; the rising of Spain and the accession of the Tory Ministry in 
England enabled Louis XIV. to get much better terms at Utrecht and 
Rastadt than had ever been expected by him ; his position at the close 
of the war ; France retained most of the towns in Europe which had 
been gained at Ryswick, and only lost Acadia in North America. 



Last Years of Lotus XIV. 81 

Religious persecution increased in France during the War of the 
Spanish Succession : the suppression of the Camisards in the Cevennes 
( 1 703-1 705); Letellier increased the King's ardor against the Jan- 
senists; destruction of Port Royal (17 10) ; Louis XIV.' s indignation at 
the opposition made by the Parlement of Paris, led by D'Aguesseau, to 
registering the bull Unigenitus ; his intention of deposing the bishops 
who favored Jansenism ; influence of Letellier. 

Last year of Louis XIV. 's foreign policy : his intrigues with the 
English Jacobites to secure the accession of the Catholic "Old Pre- 
tender ' ' in England ; a fleet prepared for the support of the Pretender. 

Bad effect of the financial maladministration: decline of agricultural, 
industrial and commercial prosperity; Vauban's Dime Roy ale published 
(1707). 

Gloom of the Court during the last years of the life of Louis XIV. : 
contrast with its opening years; death of the Dauphin, only son of 
Louis XIV. (14 April, 1711); his education by Bossuet; his three sons : 
(1) Louis, Duke of Burgundy, educated by Fenelon, died 18 Feb., 1712, 
leaving an only child, who succeeded as Louis XV.; (2) Philip, Duke 
of Anjou, became King of Spain as Philip V. in 1700; (3) Charles, 
Duke of Berry, died 4 May, 1714; the illegitimate children of Louis 
XIV.; his fondness for them; rank and favors bestowed upon them. 

Death of Louis XIV. (1 Sept., 17 15): effect of his reign on France 
and Europe ; his personal character. 

Louis XIV. and Asia : the French East India Company; foundation 
of Pondicherry (1674), taken by the Dutch (1693), but restored to 
France (1698); embassy to Siam (1685). 

Louis XIV. and America : the development of Canada ; the work of 
the Jesuits ; the government of Frontenac (1672-82 and 1689-98); La 
Salle's voyage down the Mississippi (1682); first French settlement 
in Louisiana (1699). 

Authorities : Of the secondary authorities cited under Lecture 16, Vol- 
taire, Bausset and Martin ; of those cited under Lecture 17, Michel and Mellion; 
of those cited under Lecture 19, Noailles and Geffroy; of those cited under Lecture 
24, Moret and Krohn, are still useful ; and may be supplemented for the light 
thrown on the character of Madame de Maintenon by Th. Lavallee, Histoire de 
la maison royale de Saint Cyr; by Proyart, Vie du Dauphin, pere de Louis XV., 



82 Literature in the ijth Century. 

2 vols.; by Castonnet des Fosses, L'lude francaise avant Dupleix; by Lanier, 
Etude historique sur les relations de la France et du royaume de Siam de 1662 a. 
1703, and by Parkman, Count Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV., The 
Jesuits in America in the 17th century, and La Salle and the Discovery of the Great 
West. For the administration of Louis XIV. see Dareste, Lucay, Nervo and 
Clamageran, cited under Lecture 8, and Clement, Histoire du systeme protecteur 
en France depuis le ministere de Colbert ; Reuss, L'Alsace au XVIIieme siecle ; 
Thomas, Une province sous Louis XIV., situation politique et administrative de la 
Bourgogne de 1661 a 1715 ; Monin, Essai sur l'histoire administrative du Langue- 
doc pendant l'intendance de Basville (1685-1719); Marchand, Un intendant sous 
Louis XIV., etude sur l'administration de Lebret en Provence (1687-1704), and 
Arbois de Jubainville, L'administration des intendants d'apres les archives de 1' 
Aube. Among primary authorities on administration and finance Depping, 
Boislisle and Foucault, cited under Lecture 16, should be supplemented by Es- 
naidt, Michel Chamillart, correspondance et papiers inedits ; by Desmarets, 
Memoire sur l'administration des finances depuis le 20 fevrier 1708 jusqu'au 1 sep- 
tembre 1715, and by Vauban, Projet d'une Dime royale ; while for the Court of 
Louis XIV. and his personality during the latter years of his reign to the Corre- 
spondance of Madame de Maintenon, the Letters of the Duchesse d' 'Orleans and 
the Memoires of Madame de Caylus, Choisy and Torcy, cited under Lecture 19, 
must be added the Duchesse de Bourgogne, Lettres et correspondance, ed. Gag- 
niere; Anthoine, La mort de Louis XIV., journal des Anthoine, ed. Drumont; 
the Journal of Dangeau, vols. 7-15 ; the Merits inedits, ed. Fraugere, 6 vols, and, 
above all, the Memoires of the Due de Saint-Simon ed. Chtruel, 21 vols : the 
famous work of Saint-Simon, however, must be read with ceuticn and on this sub- 
ject reference may be made to Cheruel, Saint-Simon considere comme historien de 
Louis XIV., and to Baschet, Le Due de Saint-Simon, son cabinet et Vhistorique de 
ses manuscrits. 



LECTURE 30. 



LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY IN THE 17TH CENTURY. 

Importance of the 17th century literature : the literary languages of 
Europe created ; development from the study of the classics, which 
characterized the Renaissance, into the use of vernaculars ; effect of this 
literary movement on the growth of nationalities ; the study of the 



Literature in the ijth Century. 83 

classics as models continued ; literature ceased to concern itself mainly 
with religion and dealt with more sides of human interest. 

Spain produced the first man of letters of genius of the 17th century: 
the life, character and works of Cervantes (1547-16 16) ; Don Quixote 
and its effects; the Spanish drama; Lope de Vega (1562-1635) and 
Calderon (1600-87). 

The Elizabethan period of English literature : Shakespeare (1564- 
16 16) and his contemporaries and successors ; the English drama ; the 
growth of English prose ; Bacon (1561-1626). 

Development of French literature under Richelieu and Mazarin : the 
Academie Francaise founded 1635 ; Malherbe (1555-1628); La Roche- 
foucauld (1630-80) ; the application of literature to politics ; the Maz- 
arinades; journalism ; the rise of the French drama ; Pierre Corneille 
(1606-84). 

The Age of Louis XIV : the classic or " golden " age of French lit- 
erature ; literature owed to Louis XIV. patronage, but not inspiration ; 
the greatest writers of the time were born and had begun to write before 
Louis XIV. impressed his personality on France ; tragedy : Racine 
(1639-99); comedy: Moliere (1622-73) ; poetry : influence of classicism; 
correctness took the place of inspiration; Boileau (1636-1711), the 
critic, and his influence ; development of French prose : Pascal (1623- 
62); the influence of Port Royal; La Fontaine (1621-95) an d his Fables; 
La Bruyere (1644-96) and his Characters ; fiction : Mdlle. de Scudery 
(1607-1701) ; Fenelon (1651-1715); Telemaque ; theology and history : 
Bossuet ( 1 627-1 704) ; the great French preachers, Bossuet, Bourdaloue 
(1632-1704) and Flechier (1632-1710) ; memoir-writers : Madame de 
Motteville (1621-89), Cardinal de Retz (1614-79) and Saint-Simon 
(1675-1755) ; letter writers : Madame de Sevigne (1626-96). 

Growth of taste for literature in France : the Hotel de Rambouillet 
and the " precieuses " ; their successors. 

Tendency of later writers of the Age of Louis XIV. to fulsome adu- 
lation of the king. 

English literature of the Puritan period : Milton (1608-74). 

Influence of the Age of Louis XIV. on the literature of other countries: 
in Germany, French became the language of the courts and educated 
people ; consequent sterility of German literature ; in Italy poetry on 



84 Art in the ijth Century. 

classical lines was produced ; Tassoni (1565-1655), Guidi (1650-1712), 
and Filicaja ( 1 642-1 707); in Spain pedantry of criticism caused sterility; 
in England the literature of the reign of Charles II. showed French in- 
fluence ; Dryden (1631-1701) ; Congreve (1670-1729). 

Relation of literature to philosophy in the 17th century. 

Revolution effected in philosophical method by Bacon (1561-1626) ; 
Descartes (1 596-1 650) destroyed the scholastic methods; the speculations 
of Spinoza (1632-77) ; the theories of Leibnitz (1646-17 16). 

In political philosophy France produced no great thinkers : but 
Hobbes (15S8-1679) and Locke (1632-1704) started the lines of thought 
which were to lead to great results in the 18th century. 

Grotius (1583-1646) and Puffendorf (1632-94) created and developed 
international law. 

Variety of the literary and philosophical movements of the 17th cen- 
tury ; their diverse characteristics. 



LECTURE 31. 



ART AND SCIENCE IN THE 17TH CENTURY. 

The revolution in thought and method effected by Bacon and Des- 
cartes created a new era in science : experiments took the place of the- 
ories ; and the 17th century is marked by many important scientific 
discoveries ; on the other hand art tended to lose its virility and, de- 
spite two painters of genius, the art of the 17th century is governed by 
classical conventions ; and is thus on an inferior level to its condition 
during the Renaissance. 

The Spanish school of painting : Velasquez (1 599-1 660); Murillo 
(1617-82); the greatness of Velasquez. 

The Flemish school of painting : Rubens (1577-1640); Van Dyck 
(1599-1641) ; Teniers the elder (1582-1649) ; Teniers the younger 
(1610-85). 

The Dutch school of painting : the isolated greatness of Rembrandt 



Art in the ijth Century. 85 

van Ryn (1608-69); characteristics of the Dutch school ; Frans Hals 
( 1 584-1 666); Gerard Douw (1613-80); Jan Steen (1626-79); Paul Pot- 
ter (1625-54); Ruysdael (1630-81); Cuyp (1606-62); Wouverman 
(1620-68); Van der Velde (1633-1707). 

The Italian school of painting : its decline from the great days of 
Italian art into sentimentalism ; Guido Reni (1 574-1 642); Sassoferrato 
(1605-85); Salvator Rosa (1615-73). 

The French school of painting ; its conventionality ; Poussin (1593- 
1672); I,e Brun (1619-90); Claude Lorraine (1600-82). 

The English school of painting : devoted to portraits ; influence of 
Van Dyck; Lely (1618-80); Kneller (1648-1723). 

Architecture dominated by classic ideals and styles : their inappro- 
priateness ; the forms patronized by Louis XIV. adopted in other 
European countries. 

The other arts : absence of great sculptors ; improvement in engrav- 
ing ; classical style of decoration. 

Commencement of classical gardening : the gardens of Vaux and 
Versailles; L,e Notre (1613-1701). 

Music in the 17th century : the development of the opera in Italy ; 
its popularity ; melody cultivated as well as harmony ; the Roman 
school; Carissimi (1582-1672); his church music; introduction of the 
orchestra into the churches ; his cantatas and songs; Scarlatti (1659- 
1725), founder of the Neapolitan school ; his songs and operas ; Lully 
(1633-87) developed the music written for masques ; he became the 
chief musician to Louis XIV.; his operas, ballets and musical come- 
dies ; his services to theatrical music in France ; his association with 
Moliere and Quinault ; music in England ; Purcell (1658-95). 

Bacon and Descartes, by overthrowing old methods of thinking and 
arguing, prepare the way for experimental science : scientific experi- 
ments become fashionable; foundation of the Royal Society (1662); 
science not yet divided and differentiated ; attempts at universality of 
scientific knowledge; Leibnitz (1646-17 16). 

The great mathematicians : Napier, the inventor of logarithms 
(1550-1617); Descartes (1596-1650) and the application of numerical 
exponents to geometry; Pascal (1623-62) and conic sections; Newton 
(1642-1727) and the. infinitesimal calculus and mathematical optics; 



86 Science in the ijth Century. 

the Principia ; Bernouilli (i 654-1 705) and the application of the cal- 
culus. 

The great biologists: Harvey and the demonstration of the circulation 
of the blood ( 1 578-1 657); Sydenham (1624-89); Boerhaave (1668-1738). 

The great astronomers : Galileo (1564-1642) and the demonstration 
that the earth moves round the sun ; Kepler (1571-1631) and the laws 
of planetary motion ; Cassini (1625-17 12) and the measurement of the 
earth ; Huygheus (1629-95) and the discovery of the satellites of 
Saturn ; Newton (1 642-1 727) and the lunar theory ; Gregory (1633-75) 
and the invention of the reflecting telescope; Halley (1656-1742) and 
eclipses. 

The great physicists : Galileo (1564- 1642) the inventor of the ther- 
mometer and the pendulum ; Torricelli (1608-47) the inventor of the ba- 
rometer ; Descartes and the law of refraction ; his theory of " whorls"; 
Boyle (1626-91) and the air pump; Huyghens and the pendulum clock ; 
Newton and the theory of gravitation. 

These names and discoveries only indicate the progress and first 
gains of experimental science ; the 17th century was in this respect 
also the commencement of modern history. 

Effect on the material conditions of life of the discoveries of men of 
science ; contrast between the intellectual and material conditions of 
life at the beginning and the end of the 17th century. 



LECTURE 32. 



THE REGENCY OF ORLEANS, AND THE SCHEMES OF ALBERONI. 



Condition of France at the death of Louis XIV. (1 September, 1715); 
accession of his great-grandson as Louis XV. (b. 15 Feb., 1710). 

The Parlement of Paris revoked the will of Louis XIV., and the 
Duke of Orleans (b. 1674) became Regent of France with full powers 
(2 Sept., 1715); revocation of the precedence granted to the illegitimate 
children of Louis XIV. (26 Aug., 1718). 



Alberoni. 87 

The character of the Regent : his attitude towards politics ; his agent 
and minister, the Abbe Dubois, (b. 1656); the character of Dubois. 

The foreign policy of the Regent : the schemes of Alberoni caused 
the Regent and Dubois to enter into a close alliance with England 
(1716) ; influence of the English ambassador, Stair. 

The condition of Spain in 1715 : marriage of Philip V. to Elizabeth 
Farnese, of Parma (b. 1692, d. 1766); her character and ambition; 
dismissal of Madame des Ursins (25 Dec, 1714) ; Alberoni by his influ- 
ence over the queen became the director of Spanish policy ; character 
and ideas of Cardinal Alberoni (b. 1664, d. 1752) ; his administration; 
Philip V. hoped to enforce his claim to the throne of France in case of 
the death of Louis XV. ; the queen aimed at obtaining Parma and Tus- 
cany for her children. 

The attitude of England : the accession of George I. placed the Whigs 
firmly in power ; Stanhope, a friend of the Emperor, became the direc- 
tor of English foreign policy; the principal objects of English policy, 
the maintenance of the Treaties of Utrecht, and the exclusion of the 
Stuarts from the English throne; failure of the Jacobite rising of 17 15 
in Scotland and the north of England. 

The alliance formed between England and France joined by the 
United Provinces and became the Triple Alliance ; the execution of 
the Treaties of Utrecht guaranteed \>y the allies (4 Jan., 1717). 

Causes of the renewal of war between Spain and the Emperor 
Charles VI.; the Spaniards conquered Sardinia (Aug., 1717) and at- 
tacked Sicily (July, 171 8). 

The Emperor joined the Triple Alliance, which thus became the 
Quadruple Alliance (2 Aug., 1718). 

The Spanish War : Byng destroyed the Spanish fleet off Cape Pas- 
saro (11 Aug., 17 18); a French army under Berwick invaded Spain 
(April, 1 719). 

The plots of Alberoni : he endeavored to induce Sweden and Russia 
to support the Jacobites ; he prepared a fleet for the Old Pretender ; he 
conspired with the illegitimate children of Louis XIV. for the over- 
throw of the regency of Orleans ; discovery of the conspiracy of Cel- 
lamare (8 Dec, 1718). 

All the plots of Alberoni foiled ; exiled from Spain (5 Dec, 171 9). 



88 The Regent Orleans. 

Peace signed between Spain and the Quadruple Alliance (i Feb., 
1720): the Kinperor Charles VI. , obtained Sicily ; Victor Amadeus II. 
of Savoy received Sardinia in compensation for the loss of Sicily ; the 
succession to Parma and Tuscany guaranteed to the children of Philip 
V. by his second marriage ; Saint-Simon's embassy to Spain ; arrange- 
ments made for the marriage of Louis XV. to a Spanish infanta and 
of the two elder sons of the King of Spain to two daughters of the Re- 
gent Orleans. 

The internal history of France during the regency of Orleans : ces- 
sation of the persecution of the Jansenists ; exile of Pere Letellier ; 
John Law (b. 1671, d. 1729) and his financial schemes ; the mania for 
speculation in France ; the Mississippi Company ; ruinous results of 
Law's administration ; dismissal of Law (1720); Dubois made a cardi- 
nal (1721). 

Louis XV. declared of age (19 Feb., 1723); death of Dubois (10 
Aug., 1723) and of the Regent Orleans (7 Dec, 1723). 

Authorities : Among books in English on this period see Moore, Dives of Al- 
beroni, Ripperda and Pombal ; Perkins, France under the Regency, and Arm- 
strong, Elizabeth Farnese, the "Termagant of Spain". Among secondary 
authorities may be noted Coxe, Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House 
of Bourbon, vol. ii.; DeCourcy, D'Espagne apres la paix d'Utrecht (1713-1715) ; 
Combes, La princesse des Ursins ; Seilhac, D'abbe Dubois; Wiesener, De Regent, 
l'abbe Dubois et les Anglais ; Chdteauneuf, Histoire du regent, Philippe d'Or- 
leans ; Thiers, Histoire de Daw, translated by F. Fiske, as The Mississippi Bubble ; 
Horn, Jean Daw; Cochut, Daw, son systeme et son epoque; Vuitry, De desordre des 
finances et les exces de la speculation a la fin du regne de Douis XIV. et au com- 
mencement du regne de Douis XV.; Sechi, Desderniersjansenist.es, vol. i.; Rous- 
set de Missy, Histoire du Cardinal Alberoni jusqu' a 1719 ; Vatont, Da conspiration 
de Cellamare ; Lemontey, Histoire de la Regence, et de la minorite de Douis XV., 
and O. Weber, Die Ouadrupel-Allianz vom Jahre 1718. For the part played by 
England see Stanhope, History of England, vol. i.; Lecky, History of England in 
the Eighteenth Century, vol. i. The primary authorities for the History of 
Spain include Princess des Ursins, Dettres inedites, ed. Geffroy, and Correspond- 
ance avec Madame de Maintenon; the Apologia dell' operazione del Card. Alberoni 
durante il suo ministerio, and Alberoni, Dettres intimes adressees au comte Rocca, 
^.Bourgeois; Baudrillart, PhilippeV. d'Espagne et la cour de France, vol. ii. ; Saint- 
Simon, Dettres et depeches sur l'ambassade d'Espagne, ed. Drumont. For the his- 
tory of the Regency in France see Dubois, M<f moires secretes et correspondance m€- 
dite, ed. Sevelinges, and the Memoires of Saint Simon, Villars, Noailles, Madame 



Death of Charles XII. 89 

de Staal-Delaunay, Duclos and Mathieu Marais, the Journal of Dangeau, vols, xvi.- 
xviii., and Buvat, Journal de la Regence (1715-23), ed. Campardon. Many docu- 
ments of importance are contained in Lamberty, Memoires pour servir a l'histoire 
du XVIIIieme siecle, vols, viii-xii. 



LECTURE 33. 



THE END OF THE NORTHERN WAR. 

The militar}' situation in Northern Europe at the time when Charles 
XII. of Sweden suddenly arrived in Stralsund from Adrianople (22 
Nov., 1 715): occupation of Pomerania by the Danes, Saxons, Russians 
and Prussians (1716). 

Charles XII. appointed Gortz his chief minister ; the schemes of 
Gortz ; his relations with Alberoni ; Gortz endeavored to make peace 
between Sweden and Russia ; Peter the Great not unwilling so long as 
the Baltic provinces which he had conquered were guaranteed to him. 

Charles XII. invaded Norway (17 16); George I. of England, who 
had purchased Bremen and Verden from the Danes, was determined to 
support Denmark ; second invasion of Norway by the Swedes (1718); 
Charles XII. killed at Frederikshall (11 Dec, 1718). 

Revolution in Sweden : Ulrica Eleanor, younger sister of Charles 
XII., declared Queen, the Duke of Holstein, son of his elder sister, 
being passed over ; the monarchy of Sweden made elective ; all power 
granted to an oligarchy of nobles ; execution of Gortz (13 March, 17 19). 

The Swedish Government resolved to make peace : George I. con- 
firmed in the possession of Bremen and Verden (20 Nov., 17 19) ; treaty 
signed with Augustus I. of Poland; by treaty with Prussia (21 Jan., 
1720), Frederick William I. of Prussia, obtained the district of Pomer- 
ania between the Oder and the Peene, including Stettin, with the 
islands of Usedom and Wollin ; by treaty with Denmark (9 June, 1720), 
Sweden recovered the rest of Western Pomerania and the island of 
Riigen, but confirmed the cession of Schleswig to Denmark ; by the 
Treaty of Nystadt with Russia (10 Sept., 172 1), Sweden surrendered the 



90 Death of Peter the Great. 

provinces bordering on the Gulf of Finland to Russia, but recovered 
the rest of Finland. 

These treaties, which concluded the Northern War, reduced Sweden 
to the rank of a second-rate power, and marked the advance of Russia 
and Prussia towards the supremacy of the Baltic. 

Condition of Poland during the reign of Augustus I. of Saxony (17 10- 
34) ; renewal of his scheme to obtain the hereditary throne of Poland, 
guaranteed by the neighboring powers, at the price of ceding Royal or 
Polish Prussia to the King of Prussia, eastern Lithuania to Russia and 
Zips to the Emperor. 

Condition of Denmark under Frederick IV. (1699-1730) : development 
of Danish trade ; good administration ; encouragement of education ; 
exploration of Greenland ; the Moravian missions. 

The last years of the reign of Peter the Great : his visit to Paris 
(1717) ; execution of his only son and heir- apparent, Alexis, (7 July, 
1718); Peter's ukase giving the reigning sovereign the right to nominate 
his successor (1722); the development of the European policy of Peter; 
the title of Tsar translated as Emperor of All the Russias (1721) ; 
difficulties met with in establishing a Western system of administration 
in Russia; the " Old Russian " party; Peter the Great's Asiatic policy; 
his war with Persia ; he lays down the lines of future Russian develop- 
ment; coronation of Catherine as Tsaritsa (18 May 1724). 

Death of Peter the Great (8 Feb., 1725) ; his character and greatness. 

Reign of Catherine I. ; influence of Menshikov; importance of Oster- 
mann; establishment of the Supreme Privy Council; treaty with the 
Emperor (6 Aug., 1726); foundation of the Academy of Sciences (1726); 
explorations of Bering (b. 1680, d. 1741); death of Catherine I. (17 
May, 1727). 

Reign of Peter II. (b. 1715), son of Alexis; exile of Menshikov (3 
Oct., 1727); influence of the Dolgoruki family; death of Peter II. (30 
Jan., 1730). 

Anne, Duchess of Courland (b. 1693), younger daughter of Ivan 
V. and niece of Peter the Great, declared Tsaritsa. 

Authorities : See books mentioned under Lectures 21 and 22, with Allen, His- 
toire de Danemark; Bain, The Pupils of Peter the Great; Vogue, L,e fils de Pierre 
le Grand; Herrmann, Peter der Grosse und der Zarevitsch Alexei, and Pierre Dol- 
goroukow, Memoires. 



Charles VI. and the Turks. 91 

LECTURE 34. 



THE POLICY OF THE EMPEROR CHARLES VI. 

Charles VI. refused to recognize Philip V. as King of Spain until 
after the successful war waged by the Quadruple Alliance ; improve- 
ment made in the Austrian position in Italy by the exchange of 
Sardinia for Sicily. 

The Emperor and the Turks : improvement in the position of the 
Turks since the Treaty of Carlowitz (1699) ; they recovered Azov from 
the Russians by the Treaty of the Pruth (171 1) ; under the influence 
of the Grand Vizier, Damad Ali Kumurdji, the Sultan, Ahmad III., 
declared war upon the Republic of Venice (9 Dec, 17 14) ; the Vizier 
conquered the Morea (1715), and laid siege to Corfu ; heroic defence of 
Corfu (1716); the Venetians appealed to the Emperor for help ; Charles 
VI. declared war against the Turks. 

The campaigns of Prince Eugene : he defeated the Turks at Peter- 
wardein (5 Aug., 17 16), and took Temesvar ; he besieged Belgrade, and 
won his greatest victory over the Turks there (16 Aug., 17 17) ; sur- 
render of Belgrade to the Austrians. 

Peace made between the Emperor and the Turks at Passarowitz, (21 
July, 1718) ; by this treaty Austria received the Banat cf Temesvar, 
completing its possession of Hungary, and the city of Belgrade ; the 
Venetians abandoned the Morea to the Turks, but were confirmed in 
their possession of Corfu, and received certain districts in Albania and 
Dalmatia ; importance of the treaty of Passarowitz ; it marked the 
further decline of the Turkish power in Europe. 

The attitude of Charles VI. towards Spain; the Congress of Cambrai 
(1724). 

The Emperor and the Pragmatic Sanction : the terms of this decree 
which was propounded by Charles VI. in 17 13 ; (1) the dominions of 
the House of Hapsburg declared indivisible ; (2) male heirs to succeed 
by primogeniture ; (3) in default of male heirs the succession to devolve 
upon the female heirs, first of Charles VI., then of Joseph I., and 
finally of Leopold I. 



92 The Pragmatic Sanction. 

As the Emperor had only daughters, he endeavored to obtain an oath 
of adhesion to the Pragmatic Sanction from the different states forming 
the Austrian dominions, and a guarantee from the powers of Europe. 

The different provinces of the House of Hapsburg assented to the 
Pragmatic Sanction, and it was solemnly promulgated (6 Dec, 1724). 

The desire for a universal guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction, the 
keynote of the foreign policy of Charles VI. 

The question of the Ostend Company, founded by the Emperor in 
order to obtain a share of the Asiatic trade (19 Dec, 1722); the English 
and the Dutch opposed the new Company ; the Emperor Charles was 
thus alienated from his former allies, and a negotiation was entered into 
with Spain. 

The policy of Spain after the dismissal of Alberoni : the abdication 
of Philip V. (Jan., 1724); death of Louis I. (31 Aug., 1724); return to 
the throne of Philip V. ; the Spanish infanta betrothed to Louis XV, 
sent back to Spain (Feb., 1725); the schemes of Ripperda (b. 1680, d. 
1737): an alliance signed between Charles VI. and Philip V. at Vienna 
(30 April, 1725); Charles VI. renounced his claims to Spain, promised 
to secure the succession to Parma and Tuscany to Don Carlos, son of 
Philip V. and Elizabeth Farnese, and agreed to aid Spain to recover 
Gibraltar and Minorca ; Philip V. guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, 
renounced all claims to Naples, Sicily, the Milanese and the Catholic 
Netherlands, and threw open all Spanish ports to the Ostend Company. 

Formation of the League of Hanover (23 Sept., 1725), in opposition 
to the Austro-Spanish Alliance : France and England joined by the 
Dutch, Denmark and Sweden. 

Catherine I. of Russia guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction and joined 
the Austro-Spanish Alliance (6 Aug., 1726), and her example was fol- 
lowed by King Frederick William I. of Prussia (12 Oct., 1726). 

Dismissal of Ripperda (17 May, 1726); attack of the Spaniards on 
Gibraltar. 

Change of power in France : the Due de Bourbon chief minister 
(1723-26); influence of Madame de Prie ; marriage of Louis XV. to 
Marie Leczinska, daughter of Stanislas, ex-King of Poland (4 Sept., 
1725); Cardinal Fleury appointed chief minister (11 June, 1726). 

A general European war averted by the peace policy of the English 



The Emperor Charles VI. 93 

and French ministers, Walpole (b. 1676, d. 1745) and Fleury (b. 1653, 
d. 1743). 

Authorities : Among small books in English upon the reign of Charles 
VI. may be noted Leger, Autriche-Hongrie, translated by Mrs. Birkbeck Hill, and 
for the war with the Turks, Creasy, History of the Ottoman Turks. The chief 
secondary authorities on Austrian history of this time are Krones, Hand- 
buch der Geschichte Gjsterreichs ; Arneth, Karl VI. (in Allgemeine Deutsche Bio- 
graphie, vol. xv. ); Hofler, Fragmente zur Geschichte Kaiser Karls VI. (Sitzungs- 
berichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, vol. lx., Vienna, 1868); 
Beer, Zur Geschichte der Politik Karls VI. (Historische Zeitschrift, 1862); 
Arneth, Prinz Eugen, vols, ii, iii ; A. Wolf, Geschichte der pragmatischen Sanc- 
tion ; Forster, Die Hofe und Kabinette Europas im Achtzehnten Jahrhundert ; 
Vehse, Memoirs of the Court of Austria, translated by Demmler ; VanRuckel- 
ingen, Geschiedenis der oosterryksche Nederlanden ; Belgien onder Karel VI. 
(1700-1740), and Bidermann, Geschichte der CEsterreichischen Gesammtstaatsidee. 
The secondary authorities for Turkish history are Hammer, Histoire de l'em- 
pire ottoman, and Zinkeisen, Geschichte des osmanischen Reichs in Europa. For 
the policy of Spain see Coxe, Moore and Armstrong, cited under Lecture 32, with 
Syveton, Le Baron de Ripperda ; Baudrillart, Philippe V. et la cour de France, 
vol. iii.; Ripperda, Memoirs, and Montgon, Memoires ; and for England Stanhope 
and Lecky, cited under Lecture 32, with Coxe, Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole. 
On the marriage of Louis XV. see Raynal, Le mariage d'un Roi. As primary 
authorities for the Turkish war reference should be made to Arneth, Relationen 
der Botschaften Venedigs uber Gjsterreich im i8 ten Jahrhundert (in the Fontes 
rerum Austriacarum, vol. xxii.), and Matuschka, Feldziige des Prinzen Eugens, and 
for diplomatic history to Lettres et Memoires entre les ministres des cours de la 
Grande-Bretagne, de France, et d'Espagne (1727), and the texts of the treaties. 



LECTURE 35. 



THE WAR OF THE POLISH SUCCESSION. 

Charles VI. abandoned Spain and made peace with the allies of the 
League of Hanover (31 May, 1727), suspending the Ostend Company 
and referring other disputed questions to a Congress of the Powers. 

Spain abandoned the siege of Gibraltar and made peace with Eng- 



94 Fleury and Walpole. 

land (5 March, 1728); meeting of the Congress of Soissons; by the 
Treaty of Seville (9 Nov., 1729) Spain made an offensive and defensive 
alliance with England, France and the Dutch, who guarantee the suc- 
cession of Don Carlos to Parma and Tuscany. 

The Treaty of Seville accepted by the Emperor after the death of the 
last Farnese Duke of Parma (16 March, 1731); England and the Dutch 
guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction; Charles VI. dissolved the Ostend 
Company; Don Carlos took possession of Parma. 

The Emperor Charles VI. submitted the Pragmatic Sanction to the 
Diet of the Empire (Jan., 1732); accepted by the ecclesiastical Electors 
and the Electors of Brandenburg and Hanover, but rejected by the 
Elector Palatine and the Electors of Saxony and Bavaria. 

The internal government of Charles VI.: influence exercised by 
Prince Eugene up to his death in 1736; his chief ministers, Sinzen- 
dorff, State Chancellor (1705-42), and Gundacker Thomas Starhemberg, 
in charge of the finances (1703-45). 

The peace policy of Cardinal Fleury; his endeavors to improve the 
finances of France; Orry, Controller- General of the Finances (1730-45); 
Chauvelin, Minister of Foreign Affairs (1727-37); renewal of the attack 
on the Jansenists, which involved Fleury in conflicts with the Parle- 
ment of Paris (1729, 1731-32). 

The peace policy of Sir Robert Walpole, who had become Prime Min- 
ister of England in 172 1; his foreign policy governed by commercial 
considerations; his power increased by the death of George I. (1727). 

In spite of the peaceful tendencies of Walpole and Fleury, the death 
of Augustus I., King of Poland and Elector of Saxony (1 Feb,, 1733), 
caused a general war. 

The two chief candidates for the Polish throne were Augustus, Elec- 
tor of Saxony, son of the late king, and Stanislas Leczinski, who had 
been king from 1704 to 1709 and was father-in-law of Louis XV. of 
France. 

Stanislas was elected king (11 Sept., 1733) and was supported by a 
small body of French troops ; an opposition diet elected Augustus II. 
(24 Sept., 1733) ; the Emperor Charles VI. recognized Augustus in 
return for a guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction, and the Tsaritsa 
Anne of Russia sent troops to his assistance. 



War of the Polish Succession. 95 

The Russians under Miinnich took Dantzig (9 July, 1734), the last 
refuge of Stanislas, who escaped to France ; Biren made Duke of Cour- 
land (1737). 

Fleury resolved to attack the Emperor on the pretext that Charles 
VI. had shown himself hostile to Stanislas, and formed the League of 
Turin with Spain and Sardinia for the expulsion of the Austrians from 
Italy (26 Sept., 1733); by the secret treaty of the Escurial (7 Nov., 
1733) a close alliance was formed between France and Spain ; his main 
intention in entering upon war was to acquire Lorraine for France, an 
intention quickened by the betrothal of Francis, Duke of Lorraine, to 
Maria Theresa, elder daughter of Charles VI. 

The campaign of 1733 : the French, under Berwick, conquered Lor- 
raine, and under Villars took Milan ; Walpole refused to assist the Em- 
peror ; campaign of 1734 : the French took Philipsburg, where Berwick 
was killed, and Don Carlos conquered Naples ; campaign of 1735 : Don 
Carlos conquered Sicily ; little effected in Northern Italy and on the 
Rhine ; first appearance of Russian troops in Western Europe, an army 
being sent by the Tsaritsa Anne to the help of Charles VI. 

Preliminaries of peace signed between France and Austria (3 Oct., 

*735) : 

(1) Stanislas Leczinski renounced the throne of Poland to Augustus 
of Saxony, and received the duchy of Lorraine, with the title of king. 

(2) Francis, Duke of Lorraine, the future son-in-law of the Emperor, 
guaranteed Tuscany on the death of the last of the Medici. 

(3) Don Carlos recognized as King of Naples and Sicily, including the 
Tuscan presidios, and surrendered the duchy of Parma to the Emperor. 

(4) Charles Emmanuel III. , King of Sardinia, received Novara and 
Tortona. 

(5) France to receive Lorraine on the death of Stanislas. 

These preliminaries of peace were eventually ratified in the Treaty of 
Vienna (18 Nov., i738\ when France also guaranteed the Pragmatic 
Sanction. 

Charles VI. endeavored to obtain revenge for his losses in the War of 
the Polish Succession by attacking the Turks (1737), who were since 
1736 at war with Russia ; attitude of France ; Villeneuve and Bonneval ; 
the Turks generally successful ; by the Treaty of Belgrade (1 Sept., 



96 Frederick William I. of Prussia. 

1739) Austria restored to the Turks, Belgrade, Orsova, and all the terri- 
tories acquired by the Treaty of Passarowitz, except Temesvar. 
Death of the Emperor Charles VI. (20 Oct., 1740). 

Authorities : For the military history of the War of the Polish Succession see 
Pajol, Les Guerres sous Louis XV., vols, i., ii., and Rathery, Le comte de Plelo ; 
for the policy of Austria see Krones, Ame ill, Beer, A. Wolf, Forster, Vehse and 
Bidermann, cited under Lecture 34, Hqfler, Der Congress von Soissons ( Fontes re- 
rum Austriacarum, xxxii., xxxviii) ; for the policy of France see Lacretelle, His- 
toire du XVIII ieme siecle; Jobez, La France sous Louis XV.; Tocqueville, Histoire 
philosophique du regne de Louis XV.; Bonhomme, Louis XV. et sa famille ; Des 
Riaulx, Le roi Stanislas et la reine Marie Leczinska; Boye, Stanislas Leczinski 
et le troisieme traite de Vienne ; Vandal, Une ambassade francaise en Orient sous 
Louis XV. ; la mission du Marquis de Villeneuve (1720-41), and Le Pacha Bonneval, 
and Z?' ' Haussonville, Histoire de la reunion de la Lorraine a. la France. Among 
primary authorities on French history should be noted the Memoires of Du- 
clos, Barbier, £>' Argenson, Mathieu Marais and Luynes. 



LECTURE 36. 



FREDERICK WILLIAM I. OF PRUSSIA, AND THE TSARITSA ANNE OF 

RUSSIA. 

The character of Frederick William I. (b. 15 August, 1688), King 
of Prussia (17 13-1740). 

The foreign policy of Frederick William I. : in spite of his love for 
military organization, he avoided war as much as possible ; his only 
important territorial conquest was the district of Pomerania between 
the Oder and the Peene, which gave him the port of Stettin on the Baltic 
(21 Jan., 1720) ; after the conclusion of the Northern War, Frederick 
William I. supported the doctrine of the Balance of Power in Europe ; 
his relations with England ; married to Sophia Dorothea, daughter of 
George I. 

One keynote of Frederick William's policy was his desire to inherit 
the duchies of Juliers and Berg, which it had been arranged should fall 
to Brandenburg on the extinction of the House of Neuburg, then ruling 



Frederick William I. of Prussia. 97 

in the Palatinate ; on the promise of the Emperor to secure Juliers and 
Berg to him, Frederick William I. guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, 
deserted the League of Hanover and signed the Treaty of Wuster- 
hausen (12 Oct., 1726); his schemes for obtaining Royal Prussia and 
negotiations with Augustus I. of Poland ; Frederick William I.'s atti- 
tude towards Austria and towards the Empire ; he disapproved of the 
election of Augustus II. to the throne of Poland, but nevertheless sup- 
ported Charles VI. in the War of the Polish Succession. 

The internal policy of Frederick William I. : his creation of the ad- 
ministrative system ; he deprived the nobility of all share in civil ad- 
ministration, which he entrusted to a middle-class bureaucracy; his 
centralized system and paternal government ; his improvement of the 
finances and economic administration ; his attitude towards religion ; 
he welcomed the Lutheran exiles from Salzburg and gave them lands 
to cultivate (1731-33). 

The military policy of Frederick William L: he introduced strict 
discipline and a new system of drill ; his passion for tall soldiers ; the 
excellence of his army ; he filled the ranks of all grades of officers from 
the nobles ; he recruited the army partly by compulsory service, partly 
by voluntary enlistment ; he increased the Prussian army from 38,000 
to 84,000 men ; the work of Leopold of Anhalt- Dessau (b. 1676, d. 

1747). 

Frederick William I. and his family : his quarrels with the Crown 
Prince, afterwards known as Frederick the Great. 

Death of Frederick William I. (31 May, 1740). 

Accession of Frederick II. (b. 24 Jan., 171 2): his character and early 
training ; his life at Rheinsberg. 

Russia under the Tsaritsa Anne (1730-40) : circumstances under 
which Anne obtained the throne ; she drove from power the oligarch- 
ical party led by Ivan Dolgoruki, which had placed her on the throne, 
and was proclaimed Autocrat (21 March, 1730); governed by her lover, 
Biren (b. 1690, d. 1772), who became Duke of Courland on the extinc- 
tion of the House of Kettler (1737); she carried out the policy of Peter 
the Great in home administration and maintained Western ideas ; in the 
administration of Russia, she employed German generals and ministers; 
Ostermann (b. 1686, d. 1747); Miinnich (b. 1683, d. 1767); discontent 
of the Old Russian party at the internal policy of Anne. 



98 The Tsar it sa Anne. 

The foreign policy of the Tsaritsa Anne : she maintained the alli- 
ance with the Emperor Charles VI., entered into by Catherine I., and 
guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction ; she carried out the ideas of Peter 
the Great with regard to the Poles and the Turks ; in the War of the 
Polish Succession she placed Augustus II. of Saxony upon the throne 
of Poland ; in the war with the Turks (i 736-1 739) a Russian army 
under Miinnich and Peter Lacy (b. 1678, d. 1751) conquered the Crimea 
and took Azov (1 July, 1736); by the treaty of peace with the Turks 
(18 Sept., 1739), Russia abandoned the Crimea and obtained Azov, but 
promised to maintain no fleet on the Black Sea. 

Death of the Tsaritsa Anne (28 October, 1740). 

Accession of Ivan VI. (b. 23 Aug., 1740), grand-nephew of Anne, under 
the regency of Biren ; by a coup d' Stat (20 Nov., 1740) Biren was over- 
thrown and the mother of the infant king, Anne of Mecklenburg, 
Duchess of Brunswick-Bevern, was made regent ; unpopularity of the 
new Regent on account of her German tendencies ; quarrel between 
Miinnich and the Tsar's father ; disgrace of Miinnich ; Elizabeth (b. 
I 7°9)> younger daughter of Peter the Great, supported by the Old 
Russian party and some personal friends, overturned this government 
and was proclaimed Tsaritsa (6 Dec, 1741); imprisonment of the Tsar 
Ivan VI. and his parents. (See Appendix VI.) 

Authorities : Of books in English on this period of Prussian history see 
Tuttle, History of Prussia, and Carlyle, History of Frederick the Great. Among 
general secondary histories consult Berner, Geschichte des preussischen 
Staates ; Stenzel, Geschichte des preussischen Staats ; Droysen, Geschichte der 
preussischen Politik, vol. iv. ; Ranke, Zwolf Biicher preussischer Geschichte; 
Pariset, L' etat et les eglises en Prusse (1713-1740); Philippson, Geschichte 
des preussischen Staatswesens ; Bornhak, Geschichte des preussischen Verwalt- 
ungsrechts ; Isaacsohn, Geschichte des preussischen Beamtenthums ; Stadelmann, 
Preussens Konige in ihrer Thatigkeit fur die Landeskultur, vol. i., and Cavaignac 
La Formation de la Prusse contemporaine. More special studies of the reign are 
contained in Forster, Friedrich Wilhelm I., Konig von Preussen ; Paulig, Fried- 
rich Wilh elm I. ; Beheim-Schwarzbach, Friedrich Wilhelms I. Kolonisationswerk 
in Littauen, vornehmlich die Salzburger Kolonie; Schmolter, Das politische Testa- 
ment Friedrich Wilhelm's, and the numerous articles of Schmoller in different 
periodicals, of which a complete list is given in Historische Zeitschrift, vol. lvii.- 
For the early history of Frederick the Great see the Memoirs of the Margravine 
of Baireuth; Koser, Friedrich der Grosse als Kronprinz ; Lavisse, La jeunesse du 



The Austrian Succession. 99 

grand Frederic, and Le grand Frederic avant l'avenement, and Hamilton, Rheins- 
berg, Memorials of Frederick the Great and Prince Henry of Prussia. For the 
Tsaritsa Anne reference may be made to Morfill Story of Russia ; Rambaud, 
Histoire de la Russie ; Bain, The Pupils of Peter the Great, a history of the Rus- 
sian Court and Empire from 1697 to 1740 ; Manstein, Contemporary Memoirs of 
Russia (1727-44) ; Haletn, Lebensbeschreibung des russischen general-feldmar- 
schalls Munnich ; Miinnich, Memoiren, ed. Jurgensohn ; Jansen, Graf zu Tynar, 
and the despatches of foreign ministers in the Sbornik. 



LECTURE 37. 



THE WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION. 

Important changes caused in Europe in 1740 by the deaths of Fred- 
erick William I. of Prussia (31 May), of the Emperor Charles VI. (20 
October), and of the Tsaritsa Anne of Russia (28 October). 

The two questions with regard to the succession to Charles VI. : (1) 
the succession to the Hapsburg dominions ; (2) the succession to the 
Empire. 

The claimants to the Hapsburg succession : (1) the Elector of Ba- 
varia ; (2) the Elector of Saxony and King of Poland ; (3) the King of 
Spain; (see Appendix VII.); nevertheless Maria Theresa (b. 1717), elder 
daughter of Charles VI., whose peaceful accession had been guaranteed 
by the powers of Europe under the Pragmatic Sanction, ascended the 
throne and declared her husband, Francis of Lorraine, who since 1737 
had been Grand Duke of Tuscany, to be joint ruler with her of the 
Austrian dominions ; character of Maria Theresa. 

Of the guarantors of the Pragmatic Sanction, Russia, England and 
the United Provinces supported Maria Theresa ; Saxony, Spain and 
Bavaria were openly hostile ; Sardinia and France favored the opposi- 
tion ; and Prussia took the opportunity to attack Austria by invading 
Silesia. 

England's attitude towards Maria Theresa : the opposition of France 
and Spain to her succession caused the English ministry to support her 



loo First Silesian War. 

claims ; war had been declared between England and Spain in October, 
1739; causes of this war; Anson's voyage (1740-44) ; Vernon's cap- 
ture of Porto Bello (1739) and failure before Carthagena (1741) ; influ- 
ence of this war in defining England's attitude towards Austria ; retire- 
ment of Sir Robert Walpole (17 Feb., 1742) ; position attained by- 
England during Walpole' s peace administration ; the aims of his policy. 

The attitude of France towards Maria Theresa : Fleury, like Wal- 
pole, was essentially a peace minister, but a war party existed in France 
as in England ; the French war party desired to attack Austria; the 
schemes of Belle- Isle (b. 1684, d. 1761); by the Treaty of Nymphen- 
burg(i8 May, 1741) he formed a league, against Maria Theresa, of France, 
Spain and Bavaria, joined later by Saxony, Sardinia, and (5 June, 
1 741) by Frederick the Great of Prussia. 

The attitude of Russia towards Maria Theresa : the Regent, Anne 
of Mecklenburg, proposed to assist her and to maintain the Pragmatic 
Sanction ; France induced Sweden to declare war against Russia 
(4 Aug., 1 741). 

The First Silesian War (1740-42) : Frederick II. of Prussia invaded 
Silesia (22 Dec, 1740) ; his demands and claims (see pp. 46, 70) ; he 
defeated the Austrians under Neipperg at Mollwitz (10 April, 1741); his 
agreement with France (5 June); capture of Breslau (10 Aug.) ; the 
Convention of Klein Schnellendorf (9 Oct.). 

Maria Theresa's appeals to the Magyar nobility; " Moriamur pro 
rege noslro, Maria Theresa " ; enthusiasm in Hungary for her cause, 
whether these words were used or not ; the three ceremonies at Press- 
burg; the coronation (25 June, 1741), the vote of troops (13 Sept.) and 
the oath of regency (20 Sept.). 

War of the Austrian Succession: 

Campaign of 1741: the Bavarians aided by a French army invaded 
Austria (July) and Bohemia (Oct.) ; Convention of Klein Schnellen- 
dorf (9 October) ; the French took Prague (25 November) ; the Elector 
of Bavaria crowned King of Bohemia, (17 Dec.) ; the Russians under 
Lacy defeated the Swedes at Wilmanstrand (3 Sept.); Elizabeth, 
daughter of Peter the Great, seized the throne of Russia (6 Dec.) ; 
death of Ulrica Eleanor, Queen of Sweden (5 Dec.) ; Frederick the 
Great refused to observe the terms of the Convention of Klein Schnel- 
lendorf (Nov.), invaded Moravia and took Olmiitz (26 Dec). 



War of the Austrian Succession. 101 

The question of the election of an Emperor to succeed Charles VI. : 
Maria Theresa put forward her husband, Francis of Lorraine ; the 
French supported the Elector of Bavaria, who received the adhesion of 
the Rhenish Electors, of Frederick the Great, and of Augustus II of 
Saxony and Poland ; he was unanimously chosen (24 January, 1742) 
and crowned as the Emperor Charles VII. (12 Feb.). 

Campaign of 1742 : the effect of Maria Theresa's appeal to the Mag- 
yars ; the Austrians under Khevenhiiller conquered Bavaria and took 
Munich (12-14 Feb.) ; Frederick the Great defeated the Austrians un- 
der Charles of Lorraine, brother-in-law of Maria Theresa, at Chotusitz 
(17 May) ; the policy of Carteret (b. 1690, d. 1763) ; through the medi- 
ation of England, Maria Theresa made peace with Frederick the Great 
(28 July, 1742), and, by the Treaty of Berlin, ceded Silesia to Prussia ; 
the Elector Augustus II. made peace with Maria Theresa at Dresden 
(7 September) ; critical position of the French army in Prague ; escape 
of part of the French army under Belle-Isle (16 December), and sur- 
render of the remainder (25 Dec); the campaign in Italy; the policy 
of Charles Emmanuel III., King of Sardinia ; he broke away from the 
alliance of Nymphenburg (1 Feb.), joined the Austrians and took Parma 
and Modena ; campaign in Finland ; the Swedish army surrendered to 
the Russians at Helsingfors (4 Sept.). 

Campaign of 1743 : death of Fleury (29 January) ; attitude towards 
politics of Louis XV. ; the failure of the campaign caused the ruin of 
Belle-Isle; the English ministry induced the United Provinces to support 
Maria Theresa (May); an English army invaded southern Germany ; 
George II. defeated the French under Noailles at Dettingen (27 June) ; 
Treaty of Worms (13 September) between Maria Theresa, England 
and Sardinia, by which Maria Theresa ceded Piacenza, Bobbio and the 
county of Anghiera with Vigevano to Charles Emmanuel III. ; England 
promised him a large subsidy for effective assistance in Italy ; this alli- 
ance met by the Treaty of Fontainebleau between France and Spain 
(25 October), closely uniting the two Bourbon kingdoms ; France de- 
clared war against Charles Emmanuel (30 September): by the Treaty 
of Abo (23 June), peace made between Sweden and Russia ; southern 
Finland to the Kiiimen ceded to Russia ; Adolphus Frederick of Hol- 
stein, Bishop of Lubeck, recognized as heir to the Swedish throne ; 



102 War of the Austrian Sttccession. 

Christian VI. of Denmark made an alliance with George II. of England 
(December). 

Campaign of 1744 : influence of Madame de Chateauroux ; France, 
which had hitherto taken part in the war as ally of Bavaria, declared 
war against England (15 March) and Austria (26 April) ; Marshal Saxe 
(b. 1696, d. 1750) invaded the Catholic Netherlands ; Charles of Lor- 
raine invaded Alsace ; illness of Louis XV. ; Frederick the Great mar- 
ried his sister Louisa Ulrica to Adolphus of Holstein, heir to the 
Swedish throne, and thus offended the Tsaritsa Elizabeth of Russia ; 
Frederick the Great resolved again to attack Austria ; he formed the 
Union of Frankfort with the Emperor Charles VII., the Elector Pala- 
tine, and the King of Sweden as Landgrave of Hesse- Cassel (9 June); 
he declared himself forced as an Elector to defend the Emperor (9 Au- 
gust) ; the Second Silesian war (1744-45) : Frederick invaded Bohemia 
and took Prague (2 September) ; Charles of Lorraine, recalled from Al- 
sace, evacuated Bavaria ; the Prussians forced to retire from Bohemia : 
D'Argenson (b. 1694, d. 1757) Minister of Foreign Affairs in France 
(18 November) ; in Italy the Austrians, advancing on Naples, were de- 
feated by the Neapolitans and the Spaniards under Gages at Velletri (n 
August), and a French and Spanish army under Conti and Don Philip 
conquered Nice and defeated Charles Emmanuel III. at the Madonna 
dell 'Olmo (30 Sept.); dismissal of Carteret, who was succeeded in the 
control of English foreign policy by Pelham (23 Nov., 1744) ; death of 
the Emperor Charles VII. (30 Jan., 1745). 

Campaign of 1745 : Maria Theresa signed the Treaty of Fiissen with 
the new Elector of Bavaria, Maximilian Joseph (22 April), by which 
Bavaria renounced all claims to the Austrian succession, guaranteed the 
Pragmatic Sanction, and promised to vote for the election as Emperor, 
of Francis of Lorraine ; Marshal Saxe defeated the English at Fontenoy 
( 1 1 May) and took the fortresses of the Catholic Netherlands ; the Jaco- 
bite rising in Scotland, headed by the Young Pretender distracted the 
attention of the English government ; Louisburg, on Cape Breton, cap- 
tured by the American colonists (28 June) ; Augustus II. of Saxony 
and Poland declared himself on the side of Maria Theresa (18 May) 
and invaded Silesia with the Austrians ; Frederick the Great defeated 
the invaders at Hohenfriedberg (4 June) and at Soor (30 September) ; 



War of the Austrian Sticcession. 103 

Francis of Lorraine elected Emperor by seven votes to two (13 Septem- 
ber); Frederick the Great defeated the Saxons at Kesselsdorf (15 De- 
cember), took Dresden and conquered Saxony ; the Spaniards under 
Gages and the French under Maillebois defeated Charles Emmanuel, 
King of Sardinia, at Bassignano (27 September) and took all his for- 
tresses, except Turin and Alessandria ; the Spaniards took Parma, Pia- 
cenza and Milan (16 December) ; by the Treaties of Dresden (25 
December) Maria Theresa confirmed the cession of Silesia and all 
privileges granted to Frederick by the Emperor Charles VII., and Au- 
gustus paid 1,000,000 thalers in gold, while Frederick recognized the 
Emperor Francis and evacuated Saxony. 

Campaign of 1746 : the Young Pretender defeated at Culloden (16 
April) ; the Austrians recovered Milan (19 March) and defeated the 
French and Spaniards at Piacenza (16 June) ; offensive and defensive 
alliance signed between Maria Theresa and the Tsaritsa Elizabeth of 
Russia (26 July) ; death of Philip V. of Spain (9 July) ; the Spaniards 
and French withdrew from Italy; the Austrians took Genoa (6 Sept.) ; 
in the Netherlands Marshal Saxe captured Brussels and Antwerp and de- 
feated the English and Austrians under Charles of Lorraine at Raucoux 
(11 October) ; resumption of the duchy of Guastalla on the death of 
the last duke (16 August) by Maria Theresa ; the Austrians under 
Browne with the Sardinians invaded Provence ; the Genoese expelled 
the Austrians (5-10 December) ; capture of Madras by La Bourdonnais 
(14 September). 

Campaign of 1747 : dismissal ofD'Argenson (10 Jan.) ; the Confer- 
ence of Breda ; Marshal Saxe invaded the Protestant Netherlands ; 
revolution there ; William IV. of Orange-Nassau declared Stadtholder 
(3 May) and the stadtholderate made hereditary in his family ; Marshal 
Saxe defeated the English, Dutch and Austrians under Cumberland at 
Lauffeld (2 July); storm of Bergen-op-Zoom (16 Sept.) by Lowendal ; 
defense of Genoa by Boufflers ; battle of the Col d' Assiette (19 July). 

Campaign of 1748 : the Tsaritsa Elizabeth of Russia sent help to 
Maria Theresa ; England and France determined upon peace. 

Preliminaries of peace signed between England, France and the 
Dutch at Aix-la-Chapelle (30 April), and accepted by Austria (25 
May), and by Spain and Genoa (28 June). 



104 War of the Austrian Succession. 

Definitive treaty of peace signed at Aix-la-Chapelle by England, 
France and the Dutch (18 Oct.), Spain (20 Oct.), Austria (23 Oct.), 
Modena (25 Oct.), Genoa (28 Oct.) and Sardinia (7 Nov). 

Authorities : The best small book in English is Bright, Maria Theresa. 
The most recent and most thorough secondary books on the diplomatic history 
of this period are the Due de Broglie, Frederic II. et Marie Therese, 1740-42; Fr£d- 
£ric II. et Louis XV., 1742-44; Marie Therese imperatrice, 1744-46 ; Maurice de 
Saxe et D'Argenson, 1746-48; and La paix d' Aix-la-Chapelle (1747-48); as a 
primary authority see Matscheg, Storia politica di Europa, 1740-41, studiata 
sui dispacci dei Veneti ambasciatori. For the Austrian side, see Coxe, History of 
the House of Austria ; Vitlermont, Marie Therese ; Arneth, Geschichte Maria 
Theresias, vols. 1-3; Podewils, Berichte iiber der Wiener Hofs (1746-48); A. 
Wolf, (Bsterreich unter Maria Theresia, and Aus dem Hofleben Maria Theresia 
nach den Memoiren des Fiirsten J. Khevenhuller, and G. Wolf, Aus der Zeit der 
Kaiserin Maria Theresia ; for the Fmperor Charles VII., Heigel, Der oester- 
reichische Erbf olgestreit und der Kaiserwahl Karl's VII., and Das Tagebuch Kaisers 
Karl's VII ; for Piussia,Droysen, Geschichte der preussischen Politik, vols. 11 and 12; 
Carlyle, History of Frederick the Great; Ttdtle, History of Prussia; Koser, Konig 
Friedrich der Grosse; Preuss, Friedrich der Grosse; Preussische Staatschriften aus 
der Regierungszeit Friedrichs II. vols. 1, 2, ed. Koser, and Rautner, Konig Fried- 
rich II. und seine Zeit, with the Politische Correspondenz Friedrichs des Grossen, 
and. Frederick the Great, Histoire de mon temps ; for Holland, Beer, Uber Holland 
und der CEsterreichische Erbfolgekrieg (in the Sitzungsberichte des kaiserlichen 
Akademie fur Wissenschaft, vol. lxvii.) ; for England, Ballantyne, Lord Carteret ; 
and for France, Correspondance de Louis XV. et du marechal de Noailles, ed. Rous- 
set; theMemoires of D'Argenson, ed. Rathery; Chdteauroux , Correspondance ; the 
Journal of Barbier ; the Memoires of Valory, Noailles, Duclos, and the Due de 
Luynes ; Taillandier, Maurice de Saxe; Karl Weber, Moritz, Graf von Sachsen; 
Vitzthum, Maurice, comte de Saxe et Marie Josephe de Saxe, dauphine de France ; 
Sinety, Vie du marechal de Lowendal; Ogle, The Marquis D'Argenson, and Zevort 
Le marquis d'Argenson et le ministere des affaires etrangeres. For the military 
history of the war in western Europe consult Pajol, Les guerres sous Louis XV., 
vols. 2, 3; De Vault, Les guerres des Alpes ; guerre dela succession d'Autriche, ed. 
Arvers; Crousse, La guerre de la succession d'Autriche dans les provinces Belgiques, 
avec une biographie du Mardchal de Saxe ; Valfons Souvenirs ; Moris, Opera- 
tions militaires dans les Alpes pendant la guerre de succession d'Autriche; and Thur- 
heim, Graf von Khevenhiiller) and Graf von Abenberg und Traun ; and of the first 
Silesian war, Grunhagen, Geschichte des ersten schlesischen Krieges ; and Die 
Kriege Friedrichs des Grossen, ed. the Prussian General Staff, vols 1-3. The text 
of the treaties and other diplomatic documents are contained in Wenck, Codex 
juris gentium recentissimi (1735-1772). 



The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 105 

LECTURE 38, 



THE TREATY OF AIX-LA-CHAPELEE, AND THE AUSTRO-FRENCH 

ALLIANCE. 

The first negotiations for peace : Conference of Breda (1 746-1 747); 
the Conference broken up by the refusal of Maria Theresa to negotiate 
with France ; the dismissal of D'Argenson. 

Negotiations resumed at Aix-la-Chapelle : the chief plenipotentiaries 
were for England, Sandwich ; for France, Saint-Severin ; for Spain, 
Soto-Mayor ; for the United Provinces, Bentinck, and for Austria, Kau- 
nitz ; Maria Theresa refused to surrender a principality in Italy for 
Don Philip ; the negotiations broken off ; after the defeat of L,auffeld, 
England resolved that peace should be made ; on 30 April, 1748, Eng- 
land, France and the Dutch signed preliminaries of peace at Aix-la- 
Chapelle ; Austria forced to assent, and by the end of 1748 the Peace of 
Aix-la-Chapelle was accepted by all the powers. 

By the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle : 

(1) Austria : Francis I. acknowledged as Emperor ; the Pragmatic 
Sanction again confirmed ; the Catholic Netherlands recovered ; Silesia, 
part of Iyombardy, Parma and Piacenza lost. 

(2) France evacuated the Catholic Netherlands, which had been con- 
quered by Marshal Saxe ; acknowledged the Protestant succession in 
England) and undertook to expel the Pretender. 

(3) England received again the commercial advantages given by 
Spain by the Treaties of Utrecht [which were modified, 5 Oct., 1750], 
and the status quo ante belluvi was restored in Asia and America ; by 
this clause England recovered Madras, and France, Cape Breton. 

(4) Spain acknowledged the Emperor Francis I. and Don Philip re- 
ceived a principality in Italy. 

(5) The Dutch were confirmed in the right to garrison the barrier for- 
tresses (see p. 67). 

(6) Don Philip of Spain, second son of Philip V. and Elizabeth Far- 
nese, the younger brother of Don Carlos, King of Naples and Sicily, and 
son-in-law of Douis XV., received Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla, 
which were to revert to Austria on the failure of male heirs. 



io6 Europe, 174.8-1756. 

(7) Charles Emmanuel III. recovered Savoy and Nice, and was con- 
firmed in the possession of the districts of L,ombardy ceded to him by 
the Treaty of Worms, with the exception of the duchy of Piacenza; 
this extended his eastern frontier to the Ticino. 

(8) Frederick the Great of Prussia was confirmed in the possession 
of Silesia. 

The two states which profited most by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 
were Prussia and Sardinia ; France and Spain gained nothing ; Austria 
lost less than might have been expected ; England was saved from ex- 
tinction in India. 

After the close of the War of the Austrian Succession, Maria Theresa, 
dissatisfied with the sacrifice of Silesia, which England had imposed 
upon her, was ready to alter the policy of Austria ; her one desire the 
recovery of Silesia. 

Kaunitz (b. 171 1, d. 1794) : his character and policy ; his suggestion 
of an alliance between France and Austria ; sent to Versailles to accom- 
plish this end (1749). 

Louis XV. and his foreign policy : contrast between his avowed policy 
and his secret diplomacy ; the influence of Madame de Pompadour 
(b. 1 72 1, d. 1764) ; her dislike for Frederick the Great caused her to 
favor the new departure. 

The relations between Austria and Spain : the character of Ferdinand 
VI. (1746-59) ; he entered into close alliance with Maria Theresa 
(1752) ; the relations between England and Austria ; Maria Theresa 
attempted to revive the foreign commerce of the Catholic Netherlands, 
and thus offended the maritime powers of England and the United Pro- 
vinces. 

The relations between Austria and Russia : the Tsaritsa Elizabeth, 
owing to her dislike for Frederick the Great, allied herself with Maria 
Theresa. 

The two issues which threatened to bring on a general war: (1) the 
desire of Maria Theresa to recover Silesia; (2) the rivalry between Eng- 
land and France in Asia and America. 

The rivalry between France and England in India: the French and 
English supported opposing native princes in the Deccan and the Kar- 
natik; the schemes of Dupleix; first successes of Clive; the defence of 
Arcot (1751); the recall of Dupleix (1754). 



The Austro-French Alliance. 107 

The rivalry between France and England in America: the defeat of 
Braddock (9 July, 1755). 

Maria Theresa refused to assist England against France; Frederick 
the Great and George II., by the Convention of Westminster (16 
January, 1756), made an alliance and guaranteed each other's terri- 
tories. 

Outbreak of war between England and France; Admiral Boscawen 
seized two French frigates (1755); attack on Minorca by the Due de 
Richelieu (17 April, 1756); war formally declared Xyy England (17 May); 
by France (9 June); surrender of Minorca (28 June). 

Louis XV., disgusted at the alliance between Prussia and England, 
resolved to accept the propositions of Kaunitz; Madame de Pompadour 
assisted, and a secret treaty of alliance was signed between Austria and 
France (1 May, 1756). 

Maria Theresa on this basis combined a general league against Fred- 
erick the Great, which was joined by the Tsaritsa Elizabeth of Russia, 
Augustus II. of Saxony and Poland, and other continental rulers. 

Frederick the Great, hearing of these negotiations, invaded Saxony 
(26 Aug., 1756), and thus commenced the Seven Years' War. 

The Emperor Francis declared that Frederick had exposed himself to 
penalties by thus attacking the Empire, and the Diet declared war 
against Prussia (January, 1757) ; the Tsaritsa Elizabeth made an 
offensive alliance with Austria against Prussia (2 Feb., 1757), and 
prepared an army; Sweden entered into alliance with France and Aus- 
tria (21 Mar., 1757), and was promised eastern Pomerania ; Bernis, 
who had made the secret treaty with Austria, concluded the second 
treaty of Versailles with Austria (1 May, 1757), and became Minister for 
Foreign Affairs of France (July). 

Importance of the diplomatic revolution effected by Kaunitz ; the 
classic policy of France from the time of Richelieu had been based on 
enmity against the House of Hapsburg ; causes of this change of front ; 
unpopularity of the Austro-French alliance in France; its effects upon 
Europe. 

Authorities : The best secondary work on the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle is 
the Due de Broglie, La paix d' Aix-la-Chapelle ; for the diplomatic revolution see 
the Due de Broglie, L'alliance autrichienne ; R. Waddington, Louis XV. et le 



108 The Seven Years' War. 

renversement des alliances (1754-56), preliminaires diplomatiques de la guerre de 
sept ans ; Von Arneth, Geschichte Maria Theresias, vol. iii., and Bemis, Memoires 
et lettres, ed. Masson ; for the struggle between the French and English in India, 
see Malleson, History of the French in India; and in America, Parkman, Half Cen- 
tury of Conflict ; for the situation in Prussia, Carlyle, History of Frederick the 
Great, should be used with care, and more reliance can be placed on Tuttle, History 
of Prussia, vol. iii.; on Taysen, Zur Beurtheilung des siebenjahrigen Krieges, and 
on Ranke, Der Ursprung des siebenjahrigen Krieges ; for Saxony, see Vitzthum, 
Die Geheimnisse des sachsischen Kabinets Ende 1745 bis Ende 1756 ; and for 
Russia, Vandal, Louis XV. et Elisabeth de Russie ; for Austria, the works of Von 
Arneth, A. Wolf and G. Wolf, cited under Lecture 37, may still be used with 
Bentinck, Aufzeichnungen iiber Maria Theresia, mit einer Einleitung iiber die 
(Esterreichische Politik in 1749-55, ed. Beer; for Prussia, the works cited under 
Lecture 37, with Valory, Memoires ; and for France, with Barbier, D'Argenson, 
De Luynes, Duclos, and Rousset, Correspondance de Louis XV. et du marechal de 
Noailles, should be consulted Madame de Pompadour, Correspondance, ed. Ma- 
lassis ; Campardon, Madame de Pompadour et la cour de Louis XV.; Goncourt, 
Madame de Pompadour; Broglie, Le secret du Roi ; Rousset, Le comte de Gisors, 
and Boutaru, Correspondence secrete inedite de Louis XV. 



LECTURE 39. 



THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR. 

The position of the powers of Europe at the outbreak of the Seven 
Years' War : difference of the aims of England and Prussia ; the chief 
desire of Maria Theresa and the Tsaritsa' Elizabeth was to humble 
Frederick the Great and to reduce the power of Prussia ; the policy of 
France was not so much to defeat Prussia as to check the expansion of 

England. 

The United Provinces, owing to the death of the Stadtholder, Wil- 
liam IV. (1751), and the minority of his son, pursued a peace policy 
and declared neutrality. 

England desired to fight at sea and in America and India, but was 
drawn into the continental war by the connection with Hanover ; Pitt 
(b. 1707, d. 1778) perceived the solidarity of the struggle upon the 
Continent with the maritime and colonial war, and advocated vigorous 



The Seven Years' War. 109 

support of Frederick the Great ; Prussia had to meet the assault of 
Austria, Russia, Sweden and France ; excellence of the Prussian army; 
Frederick the Great as a statesman and a general. 

The Seven Years' War : the campaign of 1756 ; Frederick the Great 
invaded Saxony (26 August) and occupied Dresden ; the Saxon army 
surrounded at Pirna ; the Austrians under Browne marched to their 
assistance; the battle of Lobositz (1 October); surrender of the whole 
Saxon army at Pirna (16 October); anger of Louis XV. at the attack 
on Saxony ; capture of Oswego by Montcalm (14 August). 

The campaign of 1757 : scheme of an invasion of Prussia by the 
Austrians, French, Imperialists, Russians and Swedes ; Frederick took 
the offensive and invaded Bohemia ; he defeated the Austrians at 
Prague (6 May); Daun (b. 1705, d. 1766) advanced to the relief of 
Prague and defeated Frederick at Kolin (18 June); retreat of the Prus- 
sians from Bohemia ; the French under D'Estrees defeated the Duke of 
Cumberland at Hastenbeck (26 July); Cumberland made the Conven- 
tion of Kloster-zeven (10 September) ; the Russians under Apraxin 
defeated the Prussians under Eehwaldt at Gross-Jagerndorf (30 August) 
and conquered Ducal Prussia ; the Imperialists with a French army 
under Soubise utterly defeated by Frederick the Great at Rossbach (5 
November); the Russians retired and the Swedes were driven out of 
Pomerania ; Frederick defeated the Austrians at Leuthen (5 Decem- 
ber) and recovered the whole of Silesia ; Pitt repudiated the Conven- 
tion of Kloster-zeven, granted a subsidy to Frederick and placed an 
English and Hanoverian army under the command of Ferdinand of 
Brunswick (b. 1721, d. 1792); failure of an English expedition against 
Rochefort ; Montcalm's capture of Fort William Henry (9 August). 

Campaign of 1758 : renewal of the alliances between England and 
Prussia, and between Austria, France and Russia ; Choiseul (b. 1719, d. 
1785) became chief minister of France and supported more strongly the 
Austro- French alliance ; Fermor with a Russian army took Konigsberg 
(21 Jan.); Frederick took Schweidnitz (16 April), and invaded Bohemia ; 
forced to retreat to meet a Russian invasion ; battle of Zorndorf (25 Au- 
gust) between Frederick and Fermor ; Frederick defeated by the Aus- 
trians under Daun at Hochkirch (14 October); the Austrians retreated 
into Bohemia ; Ferdinand of Brunswick drove the French out of Han- 



no The Seven Years' War. 

over and Westphalia, crossed the Rhine, and defeated them at Crefeld 
(26 June); Amherst and Boscawen took Louisburg (26 July), but Aber- 
cromby was repulsed from Ticonderoga (8 July); occupation by the 
English of Fort Frontenac (27 Aug.) and of Fort Duquesne (25 Nov.); 
unsuccessful English attacks on the French coast at Saint-Malo, Cher- 
bourg and Saint-Cast. 

Campaign of 1759 : the Russians under Soltikov defeated Wedell at 
Kay (23 July), took Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and were joined by the Aus- 
trian army under Loudon ; Frederick utterly defeated at Kunersdorf by 
the Russians and Austrians (12 August) ; Saxony occupied by the 
Austrians and Imperialists ; surrender of a Prussian army to Daun at 
Maxen (21 November); desperate position of Frederick the Great; 
Ferdinand of Brunswick defeated the French under Contades at 
Minden (1 August) ; English victories at sea : Boscawen defeated 
one French fleet at Lagos (17 August), and Hawke another off Qui- 
beron (21 November) ; capture of Guadeloupe (20 April) ; Rally's fail- 
ure to take Madras ; the English took Fort Niagara (25 July) and Fort 
Ticonderoga (26 July); Wolfe defeated Montcalm, and took Quebec (18 
September). 

Campaign of 1760 : Loudon (b. 1717, d. 1790) defeated the Prussians 
at Landeshut (23 June) ; defeated by Frederick at Liegnitz (15 Au- 
gust); the Russians and Austrians occupied Berlin; Frederick recovered 
his capital and defeated Daun at Torgau (3 November) ; Ferdinand of 
Brunswick kept the French out of Hanover and Westphalia, but his 
nephew was defeated by Broglie at Kloster-Camp (16 Oct.); Eyre 
Coote defeated the French at Wandewash (22 January), and overthrew 
the power of France in India ; Amherst took Montreal (8 September), 
and completed the occupation of Canada ; death of George II. of Eng- 
land (25 October). 

Campaign of 1761: exhaustion of the nations engaged in the war ; 
Loudon took Schweidnitz ; Frederick fought no pitched battle ; Ferdi- 
nand of Brunswick prevented Broglie from advancing ; the Russians 
conquered Pomerania, but failed to take Stettin ; the English captured 
Belle- Isle off the coast of France (7 June); capture of Pondicherry 
(15 Jan.); Choiseul signed the Pacte de Famille between France and 
Spain (15 Aug.); resignation of Pitt (5 Oct.). 



The Seven Years' War. in 

Campaign of 1762 : Spain declared war against England (16 Jan- 
uary); the English took Martinique (13 Feb.); Grenada (4 March); 
Saint Vincent (Mar. J; Havana (14 Aug.), and Manilla (6 Oct.); Bute be- 
came Prime Minister of England (26 May); he refused to continue pay- 
ing subsidies to Frederick ; death of the Tsaritsa Elizabeth of Russia (5 
Jan.); her successor, Peter III., made an offensive and defensive al- 
liance with Frederick (5 May); revolution at St. Petersburg (9 July); 
Peter III. overthrown by his wife, Catherine ; she declared neu- 
trality; Frederick took Schweidnitz (9 October); the Prussians invaded 
South Germany ; the Diet of the Empire declared neutrality; negotia- 
tions for peace ; a truce signed between Austria and Prussia. 

The Seven Years' War concluded by the Treaties of Hubertsburg 
and Paris. 

By the Treaty of Hubertsburg (15 February, 1763), the status quo ante 
bellum restored between Austria and Prussia ; Silesia again guaranteed 
to Prussia ; Frederick promised to vote for Joseph as King of the 
Romans and to evacuate Saxony. 

By the Treaty of Paris (10 February, 1763), France ceded Canada, 
Cape Breton, Senegal, Tobago, Dominica, Saint Vincent, Grenada and 
the Grenadines, and restored Minorca, to England ; Spain ceded 
Florida to England, in return for which France ceded Louisiana to 
Spain ; the English restored Belle-Isle, Guadeloupe, Martinique and 
the settlements in India to France, and Havana and Manilla to Spain. 

General results of the Seven Years' War ; policy of Frederick the 
Great and its results ; the policy of Pitt and its results. 

Authorities : An excellent short book in English is Longman, Frederick the 
Great and the Seven Years' War ; the volumes devoted to this period by Carlyle, 
in his History of Frederick the Great, are the most valuable in his book. For the 
military history of the war, see Geschichte des siebenjahrigen Krieges, ed. the 
Prussian General Staff; Frederick the Great, Histoire de la guerre de Sept Ans; 
Lloyd, History of the late War in Germany ; Jomini, Grand Military Opera- 
tions ; Tielcke, Beytrage zur Kriegskunst und Geschichte des Krieges von 1756 
bis 1763 ; Archenholtz, Geschichte des siebenjahrigen Krieges in Deutschland ; 
Schoning, DersiebeujahrigeKrieg; Schafer, Geschichte des siebenjahrigen Krieges; 
Rambaud, Russes et Prussiens, guerre de Sept Ans ; Hasenkamp, Ost-Preussen 
unter dem Doppelaar, historische Skizze der russischen Invasion in der Tagen des 
siebenjahrigen Krieges ; Lmnrich, Die Schlacht bei Zorndorf; Malleson, Loudon I 



H2 France under Louis XV. 

Bernhardi, Friedrich der Grosse als Feldherr ; Wesiphalen, Geschichte der Feld- 
ziige des Herzogs Ferdinands von Braunschweig-Liineburg ; Renouard, Geschichte 
des Krieges in Hannover, Hessen und Westphalen ; Valfons, Souvenirs ; Rousset, 
Le comte de Gisors ; Mention, Le comte de Saint-Germain, and Pajol, Les guerres 
sous Louis XV., vols, iv., v. For the diplomatic history of the war see the works 
cited under Lecture 38 with Due de Broglie, Voltaire avant et pendant la guerre de 
Sept Ans ; Filon, L'ambassade de Choiseul a Vienne en 1757-58 ; Bisset, Memoirs 
and Papers of Sir A. Mitchell ; Bonhomme, Madame de Pompadour general 
d'armee ; Ruville, Die Auflosung des preussisch-englischen Bundnisses im Jahre 
1762, and Beaulieu-Marconnay, Der Hubertsburger Friede. For the policy of Pitt, 
see Stanhope, History of Fngland from the Peace of Utrecht, vols, v.-vii. For the 
struggle in India, Malleson, History of the French in India, and in America Park- 
man, Montcalm and Wolfe. 



LECTURE 40. ' 



FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XV. 

The internal government of France during the 18th century : the ad- 
ministrative machinery created in the 17th century retained without 
modification ; the central government ; the work of the intendants in 
the provinces ; growth of the importance of the police ; condition of 
Paris ; introduction of lighting and fire-protection by Sartine. 

The Court of Louis XV. and its influence on internal politics after the 
death of Fleury ; its influence on foreign politics ; the power of the 
king's mistresses; Madame de Cbateauroux (1740-44); Madame de 
Pompadour (1745-64) ; the attempt of Damiens to murder the king 
(5 Jan., 1757) ; the Queen, Marie Leczinska (d. 1768); the Dauphin (b. 
1729, d. 1765) ; his wives, Marie Therese of Spain and Marie Josephe of 
Saxony ; his three sons ; the king's daughters ; their circle and influ- 
ence ; typical courtiers ; Richelieu, Maurepas, Nivernais. 

The ministers of Louis XV. : their dependence on the Court and the 
mistresses ; growth of ministerial families ; constant changes of minis- 
ters ; court intrigues ; the most notable ministers from the death of 
Fleury to the dismissal of Choiseul ; D'Aguesseau (1737-50) and La- 



France tender Louis XV. 113 

moignon (1750-68), Chancellors ; Amelot (1737-44), Rene Louis, 
marquis d'Argenson (1744-47), Rouille (1754-57), Bernis (1757-58), 
Choiseul (1758-61 and 1766-70), and Choiseul-Praslin (1761-66), For- 
eign Affairs ; Machault (1745-54), Finances ; Marc Pierre, comte d'Ar- 
genson (1742-57), Belle-Isle (1758-61), and Choiseul (1761-70), War ; 
Maurepas (1723-49), Rouille (1749-54), Machault (1754-57), Berryer 
(1758-61), Choiseul (1761-66), and Choiseul-Praslin (1766-70), Ma- 
rine; Lieutenants- General of Police, Herault (1725-40), Berryer (1747- 
57) and Sartine (1759-74). 

The private foreign policy of the king, the ' 'secret du Roi " ; its con- 
flict with the diplomacy of his ministers ; the comte de Broglie. 

The foreign policy of Choiseul : its chief features, the Pacte de 
Famille (1761) and the marriage of Marie Antoinette to the heir of 
France (16 May, 1770) ; popularity of the Spanish and unpopularity of 
the Austrian alliance in France ; Favier ; annexation of Lorraine on 
the death of Stanislas Leczinski (1766) ; purchase of Corsica from the 
Genoese (1768) and its conquest (1769) ; his policy in Poland and at 
Constantinople ; the dismissal of Choiseul (24 Dec, 1770). 

The weak points in the internal administration: confusion and mis- 
management of the finances after the administrations of Orry and 
Machault; condition of the provinces; steady improvement in manu- 
factures; prosperity of commerce with the West Indies; Bordeaux; 
success of the planters in San Domingo, the French Antilles and the 
Mauritius; abandonment of rivalry with the English in India; suspen- 
sion of the French East India Company (1769); decline in the pros- 
perity of agriculture ; state control of the internal grain trade ; the 
Pacte de Famine. 

The part played by the Parlements and especially by the Parlement 
of Paris down to the time of the dismissal of Choiseul; exile of the Par- 
lement (1753-54); the reforms of 13 Dec, 1756; the strength and weak- 
ness of the Parlements; their attempt to interfere in internal politics; 
their Jansenist proclivities cause them to support Choiseul against the 
Jesuits. 

Affairs in Brittany: quarrels of the governor, D'Aiguillon, with the 
Estates of Brittany and the Parlement of Rennes; La Chalotais; resig- 
nation of the Parlement and arrest of La Chalotais (1765); triumph of 
the Estates and Parlement, and resignation of D'Aiguillon (1769). 



114 France tender Louis XV. 

The last mistress of Louis XV. : the career and character of Madame 
du Barry (b. 1746, d. 1793), and her influence; her presentation at 
Court (1769); the dismissal of Choiseul; France governed by D'Aig- 
uillon, Terrai and Maupeou ; the work of these ministers ; D'Aig- 
uillon, Minister of Foreign Affairs (1771-74) ; his foreign policy; 
position of France during the partition of Poland ; its influence 
in the Russo-Turkish«war ; the financial policy of Terrai, Controller- 
General of the Finances (1769-74); he declared partial bankruptcy; 
Maupeou, Chancellor of France (1768), and the Parlements ; he exiled 
the former judges and created the Parlements Maupeou (1771). 

Degradation of the Court of France in the last days of Louis XV. ; 
his conduct destroyed the prestige of the French monarchy. 

Condition of France during the reign of Louis XV. : its advance in 
material wealth; general improvement in education, the work of the 
Oratorians. 

Rise of the French school of political economists known as the 
Physiocrats; their works drew attention to the importance of the agri- 
cultural interest ; Quesnay ; attempts made to improve agriculture ; 
effect of the physiocratic theories on commerce; Vincent de Gournay; 
the works of the Marquis de Mirabeau. 

Intellectual condition of France under Louis XV. : effect of the works 
of " the philosophes " ; Voltaire and his influence ; Diderot ; the publi- 
cation of the Encyclopidie Methodique ; Jean Jacques Rousseau; his 
influence on political and social ideas, and upon education; the Contrat 
Social, the Profession de foi d'un Vicaire Savoyard, the Nouvelle Hiloise 
and Emile. 

Position of affairs at the death of Louis XV. (10 May, 1774); weak- 
ness of the administrative machine : prosperity and intelligence of the 
middle classes ; political insignificance of the nobility; condition of the 
Church ; evil effect of privilege ; general expectation of a new order of 
things inspired by the intellectual movement. 

Authorities : Among secondary histories may be noted Voltaire, Siecle de 
Louis XV. ; Lacretelle, Histoire de France pendant le XVIIIieme siecle, 6 vols., and 
La France sous Louis XV., 6 vols., and Tocqueville, Histoire philosophique du 
r£gne de Louis XV. The memoirs dealing with the period are described in 
Aubertin, L'esprit public au XVIIIieme siecle ; among them may be particularly 



The Suppression of the Jesuits. 115 

noticed those of the Due de Luynes, President Henault, D' Argenson, ed. 
Rathery, Barbier, Madame du Hausset, Pierre Narbonne, Dufort de Chevemy, Al- 
lonvitle, and Bachaumont (those of the Due de Richelieu and the Souvenirs of 
Madame de Crequi are compilations) and Tilly, Souvenirs. Upon the finances, 
Stourm, Les Finances de l'ancien regime et de la Revolution, and Marion, Machault 
d'Arnouville, etude sur l'histoire du controle generate des finances de 1749 a 1754, 
may be consulted ; on the Physiocrats, Higgs, The Physiocrats ; Lavergne, Les 
economistes francais au XVIIIieme siecle ; Schelle, Vincent de Gournay, and Du- 
pont de Nemours et l'ecole physiocratique ; Galiani, Correspondance, ed. Perey 
and Maugras ; Turgot, CEuvres ; and the writings of the Physiocrats, ed. Dupontde 
Nemours, 10 vols., or ed. Daire, 15 vols.; on the Pacte de Famine, Biollay, Le 
pacte de famine, and Afanassiev, Le commerce des cereales en France au XVIIP 
siecle ; on the secret diplomacy, Broglie, Le secret du Roi; Boutaric, Correspondance 
secrete de Louis XV.; Gaillardet, Memoires sur la chevaliere d'Eon, and Telfer, 
The Strange Career of the Chevalier d'Eon de Beaumont; on the policy of Choiseul, 
Soulange-Bodin, La diplomatic de Louis XV. et le Pacte deFamille, and Daubigny, 
Choiseul et la France d'Outre-mer apres le traite de Paris ; on local administration, 
Legrand, Senac de Meilhan et l'intendance du Hainaut ; Dumas, La generality de 
Tours au XVIIP siecle ; Came, Les Etats de Bretagne ; Carre, La Chalotais et le 
due d'Aiguillon ; Marion, La Bretagne et le due d' Aiguillon (1753-1770); 
Mathieu, L'ancien regime dans la province de Lorraine, and D' Haussonville, His- 
toire de la reunion de la Lorraine a la France, vol. iv.; on the latter years of Louis 
XV., Vatel, Histoire de Madame Du Barry, and Flammermont, Le chancelier 
Maupeou et les Parlements ; and on the king's court and his personality, Bon- 
homme, Louis XV. et sa famille ; D' Armailli, La reine Marie Leczinska ; 
Emm. de Broglie, Le fils de Louis XV., Louis, Dauphin de France, (1729-1765); 
BarthHemy, Mesdames de France ; Correspondance secrete entre Marie Therese et 
le comte de Mercy-Argenteau, ed. Arneth and Geffroy ; Cretineau-Joly , Histoire 
destrois derniers princes de la maison de Conde, and Maugras, Le due de Lauzun 
et la cour intime de Louis XV. 



LECTURE 41. 



THE SUPPRESSION OF THE JESUITS. 

The condition of the southern countries of Europe in the middle of 
the 1 8th century : their internal development under reforming kings 
or great ministers ; influence exerted by the philosophic doctrines of the 



Ii6 The Suppression of the Jesuits. 

time towards religious toleration and general reform ; altered attitude 
towards the Pope and the Church. 

The Popes of the 18th century : Clement XL — Albani — 1700-1721 ; 
disputes with Victor Amadeus, King of Sicily ; Innocent XIII. — Conti 
— 1721-24; Benedict XIII. — Orsini — 1724-30; he confirmed the con- 
demnation of the Jansenists, and maintained the bull " Unigenitus " as 
an article of faith ; his personal piety and amiability ; rapacity and 
misgovermnent of Cardinal Coscia ; Clement XII. — Corsini — 1730-40 ; 
punishment of Coscia ; Benedict XIV. — L-atnbertini — 1740-58 ; his 
skill as a statesman ; his philosophical tendencies and moderation ; his 
correspondence with Voltaire ; his buildings at Rome ; he died before 
the opposition to the Jesuits reached its height ; Clement XIII. — Rez- 
zonico — 1758-69 ; his refusal to consent to the suppression of the So- 
ciety of Jesus. 

The general discontent in Roman Catholic countries caused by the 
commercial operations of the Jesuits ; the Society ceased to be self- 
sacrificing and devoted to the Papacy ; faults and virtues of the Jesuits 
in the 18th century. 

The first attack on the Jesuits was directed by Pombal, who had be- 
come chief minister of Portugal under King Joseph ; causes of Pom- 
bal's hatred of the Jesuits ; they opposed his measures of reform ; they 
monopolized what remained of Portuguese commerce with India, and 
they fought against the cession of Paraguay to Portugal ; Pombal for- 
bade the Jesuits to come to court without leave (1757) ; the Tavora 
plot (1758) ; Pombal deported the Jesuits to Italy (1759), and confis- 
cated all their property in Portugal ; Pope Clement XIII. defended the 
Jesuits ; execution of Malagrida (1761). 

The example of Pombal followed in other countries : (1) in France : 
discredit caused by the failure of Jesuit traders; Choiseul was supported 
by the Parlements, who remembered the persecution of the Jansenists ; 
the Parlement of Paris condemned the constitutions of the Society 
(1761) ; abolition of the Society in France by a royal edict (1764) ; (2) 
in Spain : Charles III. banished the Jesuits from his kingdom (1767); 
(3) in Italy: the Jesuits expelled from Naples (1767) and Parma (1768). 

Pope Clement XIII. defended the Society of Jesus ; he attacked the 
weakest of their opponents, excommunicated the Duke of Parma, and 



The Suppression of the Jesuits. 117 

declared the duchy confiscated (1768) ; the Catholic powers supported 
Parma ; the French occupied Avignon, and the Neapolitans Bene- 
vento and Ponte Corvo ; Spain, the Two Sicilies, France and Portugal 
demanded the suppression of the Society of Jesus (Jan., 1769) ; death 
of Pope Clement XIII. (3 Feb., 1769). 

Election of Pope Clement XIV. — Ganganelli — (19 May, 1769) ; his 
character and previous career ; pressed by Cardinal Bernis on the part 
of France to suppress the Society of Jesus ; difficulties of his position ; 
reconciled to Parma and Portugal ; the evacuation of Avignon and 
Benevento ; eventually he issued a brief suppressing the Society of 
Jesus (27 July, 1773). 

Effect upon Europe of the overthrow of the Jesuits ; their suppression 
typical of the changed attitude of the Catholic powers towards the Pope 
and of the people towards the Catholic religion. 

Attempts made to replace the Jesuits as a teaching organization ; the 
Oratorians ; Catherine II. protected and encouraged the Jesuits in the 
part of Poland which fell to her at the first partition ; the Society con- 
tinued to exist in Russia and Prussia. 

Death of Clement XIV. (22 Sept., 1774) ; election of Pius VI.— 
Braschi (14 Feb., 1775). 

Internal administration of the States of the Church under the Popes 
of the 1 8th century ; condition of the Legations • Rome became the 
chief place of resort for wealthy travellers ; effect upon Protestant coun- 
tries of the increased tolerance of the Papacy. 

Improved personal character of the Popes in the 18th century: de- 
crease of personal and family ambition ; disappearance of nepotism. 

Significance of the suppression of the Society of Jesus as a typical act 
of the 1 8th century. 

Authorities : For the suppression of the Jesuits see Cretineau-Joly, Histoire 
religieuse, politique et litteraire de la compagnie de Jesus, vols v., vi., and Le Papc 
Clement XIV.; Senac de Meilhan, Histoire abregee de l'expulsion des Jesuites; 
Saint-Priest, Histoire de la chute des Jesuites ; Masson, Le cardinal de Bernis 
depuis son ministere (1758-94); Theiner, Histoire du pontificat de Clement XIV.; 
Von Reumont,Gariga.nelli, Papst Clemens XIV., seine Briefe und seine Zeit; Artaud, 
Histoire de Pie VI., and Crousaz-Cretet, I/Eglise et l'EJtat (1715-89). 



Ii8 The Tsar it sa Elizabeth. 

LECTURE 42. 



THE FIRST PARTITION OF POLAND. 

The internal history of Russia from the death of Peter the Great : 
formation of two opposing parties, of which one desired to continue the 
progress in Western civilization commenced by Peter, and the otfier de- 
sired to recur to the old Russian customs and system of government; the 
Church, the nobles and the mass of the population favored throughout 
the century a reaction against Peter's innovations ; it was due to the 
personal character of successive rulers that Russia was further developed 
on Western lines. 

Both the Tsaritsa Anne (1730), and the Tsaritsa Elizabeth (1741), 
were raised to the throne of Russia because they were believed to be in 
sympathy with old Russian ideas, and it was expected that they would 
leave the control of affairs to the Russian nobles, but both Tsaritsas, 
when firmly established, carried on the system of Peter the Great in in- 
ternal government. 

Although the Russians disliked the Western system and the employ- 
ment of foreigners introduced by Peter the Great, they enthusiastically 
believed in his foreign policy and in the ideas he had formed for the 
expansion of Russia ; the foreign policy of the government was popular 
or unpopular in so far as it adhered to or departed from the lines laid 
down by Peter the Great. 

The foreign policy of the Tsaritsa Elizabeth (1741-62): influence of 
L-a Chetardie, the French ambassador (1741-44); her alliance with 
Maria Theresa (1746), to whom she sent an army (1748); her hatred 
for Frederick the Great of Prussia; the director of her policy, the Chan- 
cellor Bestushev (1744-58): his Austrian sympathies; part of Russia 
in the Seven Years' War; open partisanship of the Grand Duke Peter 
for Frederick the Great, and of his wife the Grand Duchess Catherine 
for England; overthrow of Bestushev (1758); the administration of the 
Chancellor Vorontsov (175S-67). 

The internal government of the Tsaritsa Elizabeth : her character 
and her court ; her lovers ; Lestocq, Razumovski, Ivan Shuvalov; 
intolerance and revival of religious persecution ; French took the 



Poland in the 18th Century. 119 

place of German influence at the Russian Court ; the Grand Duchess 
Catherine and the Shuvalovs and Vorontsovs ; Ivan Shuvalov founded 
the University of Moscow (1755). 

The Tsaritsa Elizabeth succeeded by her nephew, Peter III. , Duke 
of* Holstein- Gottorp (5 Jan., 1762) ; unpopularity of Peter as a for- 
eigner and adherent of foreign ideas ; Peter III. overthrown by his wife 
Catherine (9 July, 1762). 

Murder of Peter III. (17 July) ; the character of this revolution ; 
character of Catherine (b. 1729) ; unsoundness of her title ; attempt to 
bring forward the Tsar Ivan VI- from his prison (see p. 98); his 
murder (16 July, 1764). 

The Tsaritsa Catherine II. desired to emphasize her belief in the 
policy of Peter the Great ; to satisfy the Old Russian party, she re- 
solved to pursue an aggressive policy in Poland ; the popularity of this 
policy in Russia ; Catherine showed her intention of interfering in Po- 
lish affairs by reinstating Biren in Courland (Jan., 1763); Charles of 
Saxony, son of the King of Poland, who had been Duke of Courland 
since 1758, forced to retire (27 Apr., 1763). 

Attitude of Frederick the Great towards Poland : he desired to unite 
Royal Prussia to his dominions ; this had been a keynote of Hohenzol- 
lern policy since the proposal of Frederick I. to Peter the Great to dis- 
member Poland ; further, Frederick was afraid that Saxony and Poland 
might be permanently united, and thus counterbalance the power of 
Prussia. 

The attitude of Maria Theresa towards Poland : her determination 
that Russia and Prussia should not divide Poland without giving her a 
portion ; she was urged in this direction by her son Joseph II. , who had 
become Emperor in 1765. 

Condition of Poland : its poverty and bad government under the 
Saxon kings ; the Roman Catholic majority persecuted the Protestants 
and the Greek Church ; non-Catholics excluded from sitting in the Diet 
(1719), and from all political rights (1733). 

The two parties in Poland : the Pro-Saxon and the Anti-Saxon par- 
ties ; Louis XV. supported the Pro-Saxon party owing to the marriage 
of the Dauphin to a Saxon princess ; the candidature of Conti. 

Death of Augustus II., King of Poland (5 Oct., 1763) ; his death fol- 



120 First Partition of Poland. 

lowed by that of his eldest son (17 Dec., 1763); Frederick Augustus, 
who succeeded as Elector of Saxony, was too young to obtain the 
throne of Poland. 

Election of Stanislas Poniatovski (b. 1732, d. 1798) as King of Po- 
land (7 Sept., 1764), by the influence of Russia and Prussia ; Frederick 
and Catherine had made a defensive alliance for this purpose, in which 
they guaranteed the constitutions of Poland and Sweden (11 Apr., 
1764). 

The reign of Stanislas Poniatovski : he endeavored in vain to per- 
suade the Diet to revoke the decree of 1733, and to admit non-Catholics 
to office (1766) ; the Confederation of Radom ; the reforms of 1768 ; 
Catherine declared her intention of maintaining the Polish constitution. 

Opposition to the interference of Russia : formation of the Confedera- 
tion of Bar (28 Feb., 1769) ; Choiseul desired to support the Confedera- 
tion of Bar, and incited the Turks to attack Russia ; the Russians 
marched against the Confederates of Bar ; resistance of Pulaski ; war 
between the patriotic Poles and the Russians fighting in the name of 
King Stanislas (1768-72) ; help sent by Choiseul ; the missions of 
Taules (1768), Chateaufort (1769), Dumouriez (1770) and Viomesnil 
(1771); attempt to carry off the King (Nov., 1771); the Confederation 
of Bar overthrown by Russian, Prussian and Austrian troops. 

The Russo-Turkish war ; the Turks declared war against Russia 
(6 Oct., 1768); the Russians conquered Moldavia (1769); Wallachia 
(1770); and the Crimea (1771); a Russian fleet under Alexis Orlov 
sailed around into the Mediterranean and incited the Greeks to rebel ; 
the Turkish fleet destroyed at Tchesme (7-8 July, 1770). 

Frederick the Great proposed the partition of Poland ; his agreement 
with the Emperor Joseph II. at Neiss (Aug., 1769); the proposition 
made to the Tsaritsa Catherine. 

The negotiations for the partition of Poland (1770-72); a final agree- 
ment made by the Treaty of St. Petersburg (25 July, 1772); the Polish 
Diet forced to consent to the partition treaty (18 Sept., 1773). 

By the first partition of Poland : (1) Frederick received Royal Prussia, 
with the exception of Dantzig and Thorn, thus connecting his eastern 
dominions with Brandenburg ; (2) Maria Theresa received the county 
of Zips, Eodomeria and Red Russia ; (3) Russia received Polish L,ivonia 



Treaty of Kutschuk Kainardji. 121 

and Lithuania to the east of the Dwina and the Dnieper ; while (4) 
Stanislas Poniatovski remained ruler of the diminished central district 
as King of Poland. 

The respective advantages gained by the three powers in the first 
partition of Poland. 

Conclusion of the Russo-Turkish war : campaign of 1773 ; death of 
the Sultan, Mustapha III. (25 Dec, 1773); campaign of 1774; victor- 
ies of the Russians under Rumiantsov; Treaty of Kutschuk Kainardji 
(21 July, 1774); the Russians restored Moldavia and Wallachia, but re- 
tained Azov and Kinburn ; the Tartars of the Crimea declared inde- 
pendent of Turkey; Russian ships allowed free passage through the 
Dardanelles and on the Danube ; Russia acknowledged as the protector 
of the Danubian principalities ; the Austrians occupied the Bukovina,. 
which was ceded to them by the Turks (7 May, 1775). 

Effect of the partition of Poland and of the Treaty of Kutschuk 
Kainardji upon the position of the Tsaritsa Catherine II. 

Authorities: The best small book on this subject is Sorel, La Question 
d'Orient au XVIIIieme Siecle. The most important secondary works are 

Kareef, Les causes de la chute de la Pologne (Revue Historique, 1891); Saint- 
Priest, IJtudes diplomatiques, vol. i., Partage de la Pologne ; Herrmann, Die oes- 
terreichisch-preussische Allianz und die Theiluug Polens; Beer, Die erste Theilung 
Polens, and Friedrich II. und Van Swieten ; De Smitt, Frederic II., Catherine et le 
partage de la Pologne ; Michael, Fnglands Stellung zur ersten Theilung Polens ; 
Von der Briiggen, Polens Auflosung ; Schlozer, Friedrich der Grosse und Kath- 
arina die Zweite ; Janssen, Zur Genesis der ersten Theilung Polens ; Gross- 
Hoffinger, Die Theilung Polens ; Ropell, Polen um die Mitte des XVIII. Jahrhun- 
derts ; Barral, Ftudes sur 1'histoire diplomatique de l'Europe; Bonneville de 
Marsangy, Le Chevalier de Vergennes, son ambassade a. Constantinople, and 
Broglie, Le secret du Roi. The celebrated work of Rulhiere, Histoire de l'anarchie 
de Pologne et du demembrement de cette republique, was left unfinished and only 
goes to 1770 ; it was continued in much inferior style by Ferrand, Les trois de- 
membrements de la Pologne. Among primary authorities see Stanislas 
Poniatovski, Mdmoires secretes et intimes, and Correspon dance avec Madame 
Geoff rin, ed. De Moity; Viomesnil, Lettres particulieres sur les affaires de Pologne 
(1771-2), ed. Grimoard; Dnmouriez, Memoires, and Angeberg, Recueil des traites, 
conventions, et actes diplomatiques concernant la Pologne (1762-1862), in addition 
to the documents in the Sbornik and the Politische Korrespondenz Friedrich's des 
Grossen. 



122 The War of American Independence. 

LECTURE 43. 



THE WAR OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 

Interest taken in Europe in the struggle of the American colonists for 
independence: unpopularity of England on the Continent; France and 
Spain desired to revenge themselves for the humiliations of the Seven 
Years' War and the Peace of Paris ; Austria was bound to France by 
the treaty of 1756; Frederick the Great of Prussia was disgusted by the 
way in which he had been deserted by England after the fall of Pitt ; 
Catherine of Russia was jealous of the commercial pretensions of Eng- 
land; the republican party in the Protestant Netherlands, in its opposi- 
tion to the House of Orange and to England, desired to help the 
American colonists. 

Enthusiasm in France for the cause of American liberty: La Fayette 
and other volunteers joined Washington (1777); Vergennes, Minister of 
Foreign Affairs in France from 1774, took advantage of this enthusiasm 
against England; treaty of alliance signed between France and the 
United States (6 Feb., 1778); Turgot and Necker opposed to war for 
financial reasons; neglect of the effect which assistance to a republican 
movement might have in France itself; commencement of war between 
England and France (June, 1778). 

Spain commenced war against England (June, 1779); causes for this 
action; influence of the Pacte de Famille. 

The position in the United Provinces : war declared by England 
against the Dutch (20 Dec, 1780). 

Attitude of the Tsaritsa Catherine: formation of the Armed Neu- 
trality or Neutral League of the North ; Catherine's declaration (9 
Mar., 1780) acceded to by Denmark (9 July 1780), Sweden (1 Aug., 
1780), the Dutch (4 Jan., 1781), Prussia (19 May, 1781), Austria (9 
Oct., 1781), Portugal (24 July, 1782), and the Two Sicilies (21 Feb., 

1783). 

Complete isolation of England during the War of American Inde- 
pendence; her internal troubles ; weakness of the government; danger 
threatened in Ireland ; England's fall from the great position she had 
occupied during the ministry of Pitt ; England's only resources her 



The War of American Independence. 123 

naval efficiency and wealth ; her naval supremacy threatened by the 
new French and Spanish navies created by Choiseul and Sartine, by 
Aranda and O'Reilly. 

England's efforts to extend the war against France to Europe, in con- 
nection with the question of the Bavarian Succession, frustrated by the 
policy of Vergennes and the Treaty of Teschen (13 May, 1779). 

Owing to the absence of a base of operations on the Continent, the 
war was essentially naval. 

Campaign of 1778: the battle off Ushant between Keppel and D'Or- 
villiers (27 July); a French fleet under D'Estaing came to the help of 
the American colonists; Bouille took Dominica (8 Sept.); the English 
took Saint Eucia (14 Dec.) and Pondicherry (17 Oct.). 

Campaign of 1779: Spain commenced war and a French and Spanish 
army and fleet laid siege to Gibraltar ; Eliott's defence of Gibraltar ; 
D'Estaing took Saint Vincent (19 June) and Grenada (4 July); defeated 
in an attack on Savannah (9 Oct.); D'Orvilliers with a French and 
Spanish fleet commanded the Channel, but failed to effect a landing in 
England; failure of Nassau-Siegen's expedition against Jersey (1 May); 
the French took Senegal (30 Jan. -6 Mar.), and the English took Goree, 
on the west coast of Africa; the English took Mahe, in India. 

Campaign of 1780: Rodney relieved Gibraltar and defeated the Span- 
iards off Cape Saint Vincent (16 Jan.); Rochambeau arrived in America 
with a French army; naval battles in the West Indies between De 
Guichen and Rodney (17 April, 15, 19 May); Haidar Ali overran the 
Presidency of Madras and asked for French help. 

Campaign of 1781: Rodney took Saint Eustatia (3 Feb.); Bouille took 
Tobago (2 June); DeGrasse by sea and Rochambeau on land cooperated 
with Washington in forcing the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown 
(19 Oct.); battle between the English and Dutch off the Doggerbank 
(5 Aug.); Bouille took Saint Eustatia (26 Nov.); defeat of Haidar Ali 
by Eyre Coote at Porto Novo (7 July). 

Campaign of 1782: the Spaniards took Minorca (5 Feb.); Bouille 
took Saint Kitts (12 Feb.); Rodney (b. 171 7, d. 1792) won a great vic- 
tory over De Grasse (12 Apr.); Howe relieved Gibraltar (18 Oct.); 
series of battles between De Suffren and Hughes off the coast of India; 
Bussy took command of a French force in India; death of Haidar Ali 
(7 Dec). 



124 The Treaty of Versailles. 

General weariness of the war: retirement of Lord North (20 March, 
1782); the new English ministry resolved to recognize the independ- 
ence of the American colonies; preliminaries of peace signed with the 
United States (30 Nov., 1782), with France and Spain (20 Jan. 1783); 
signature of the Treaty of Versailles (3 Sept., 1783), accepted later by 
the Dutch. 

Terms of the Treaty of Versailles : England recognized the inde- 
pendence of the United States, restored Minorca and Florida to Spain, 
and ceded Tobago and Saint Eucia, Senegal and Goree, to France; the 
status quo ante bellum restored in India, except that England obtained 
Negapatam from the Dutch. 

Results of the War of American Independence : weakening of Eng- 
land by her colonial losses and the belief that her naval supremacy had 
gone forever ; increase in the confusion of the finances of France ; 
spread of a current of opinion favorable to self-government and opposed 
to monarchy. 

Foreign policy of the younger Pitt, who had become Prime Minister 
of England in 1784, during the first years of his administration. 

Authorities: Stevens, Facsimiles of Manuscripts in European Archives; the 
Diplomatic Correspondence of the American Revolution ed. Wharton; Franklin, 
Works ; Adams, Works ; Lecky, History of England in the 18th Century; Mahan, 
Influence of Sea Power in History; Doniol, Histoire de la participation de la 
France a la liberation des Etats-Unis d'Amdrique ; Batch, Les Francais en 
Amerique pendant la guerre de l'independance des Etats-Unis ; Chevalier, 
Histoire de la marine francaise pendant la guerre de l'independance americaine; 
Fauchille, La diplomatic francaise et la ligue des neutres de 1780 ; Bergbohm, 
Die bewaffnete Neutralist (1780-3); Andrews, History of the War with America, 
France, Spain and Holland, in 1775-83 ; Mundy, Life of George, Lord Rodney; 
Drinkwater, The Three Sieges of Gibraltar ; Sayer, History of Gibraltar, and 
Malleson, Final French Struggles in India. 



EECTURE 44. 



FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XVI. 

Character of Eouis XVI. (b. 1754): his attitude towards measures of 
internal reform ; his interest in naval affairs ; his attitude towards for- 



The Policy of Vergennes. 125 

eign politics ; his personal relations with the Emperor Joseph ; Marie 
Antoinette (b. 1755); her influence in internal and foreign politics. 

Maurepas (b. 1701), Chief Minister (1774-81) ; his character and 
career; recall of the Parlements (12 Nov., 1774) ; the colleagues of 
Maurepas; Vergennes (1774-87), Foreign Affairs ; Turgot (1774-76), 
Necker (1776-81), Finances; Saint-Germain (1775-77), Montbarrey 
(1777-80), Marechal de Segur (1780-87), War; Sartine (1774-80), Cas- 
tries (1780-87), Marine. 

The administration of the army : reforms of Saint- Germain ; writings 
of Guibert ; improvements in organization ; the military schools ; or- 
ganization of the artillery by Gribeauval ; formation of the general 
staff (1783); decree of 22 May, 1781, excluding all but nobles from 
commissions in the army. 

The administration of the navy : the vigor of Sartine in ship build- 
ing ; foundation of Cherbourg (1779) ; the regulations of Castries. 

The foreign policy of Vergennes (b. 1717) : his attitude towards 
the Spanish and the Austrian alliances. 

Vergennes and the smaller states of Europe : Vergennes and Sweden ; 
Vergennes and Italy ; Vergennes and the Turks ; embassies of Saint- 
Priest (1768-84), and of Choiseul-Goufner (1784-92) ; the treaty of 1779 
by which the Turks gave free navigation in the Black Sea to the 
Russians, and the Convention of 1784 by which they recognized the 
annexation of the Crimea to Russia. 

Vergennes and Russia : joint mediation for the Treaty of Teschen 
(1779) ; the Armed Neutrality (1780) ; visit of the Grand Duke Paul to 
Paris (1782); the embassy of Segur (1784-89); the commercial 
treaty of 1787 ; Vergennes' attitude towards Joseph II. and Frederick 
the Great. 

The part taken by France against England during the War of Amer- 
ican Independence ; Vergennes induced Spain to commence war against 
England; gains made by France by the Treaty of Versailles (1783); 
conclusion of a commercial treaty between England and France (1786). 

Vergennes and the Dutch : his intervention in the dispute between 
Joseph II. and United Provinces ; by his mediation the Treaty of 
Fontainebleau was signed (10 Nov., 1875); his attitude in the troubles 
between the Stadtholder and " the Patriots." 



126 Turgot and Necker. 

Death of Vergennes (13 Feb. 1787); ability shown by Vergennes in 
concealing the real weakness of France ; Vergennes succeeded as Min- 
ister for Foreign Affairs by Montmorin. 

Internal administration during the reign of Louis XVI. : influence of 
the Court ; extravagance of Marie Antoinette ; her unpopularity at 
Court and among the people. 

The reforms of Turgot (b. 1727, d. 1781): his previous career and eco- 
nomic ideas ; his attempts to reform the financial administration ; op- 
position to his schemes; he established internal free trade in grain (13 
Sept., 1774), and attacked all restrictions on freedom of labor and free- 
dom of trade ; his decrees replacing the corvee, or forced labor on the 
roads, by a tax and abolishing guilds passed in spite of the opposition 
of the Parlement of Paris (12 March, 1776); his desire to overthrow the 
relics of feudalism and to improve agriculture ; his scheme of national 
education ; the work of Malesherbes (1775-76); dismissal of Turgot 
(13 May, 1776). 

The financial administration of Necker (b. 1732, d. 1804): his endea- 
vors to draw up a balance sheet for France ; his financial methods and 
proposed reforms ; excitement caused by the publication of the Compte 
Rendu; dismissal of Necker (19 May, 1781). 

Attempt at improving local administration ; formation of Provincial 
Assemblies for Berry (1778), Upper Guienne (1779) and the Bourbon- 
nais(i78o). 

The financial administrations of Joly de Fleury and D'Ormesson 
(1781-83). 

The financial administration of Calonne (b. 1734, d. 1802): his sys- 
tem of loans ; his propositions for increased taxation ; increase of the 
deficit; convocation of the Assembly of Notables (1787); first mention 
of summoning a States- General; dismissal of Calonne (8 April, 1787). 

Administration of Iyomenie de Brienne (b. 1727, d. 1794): his 
struggle with the Parlements ; his measures of reform ; excitement in 
France at the exile of the Parlements ; the Assembly at Vizille (21 
July, 1788); promise of a speedy convocation of the States- General ; 
dismissal of Lomenie de Brienne (25 Aug., 1788). 

Second adminstration of Necker: his preparations for the elections to 
the States- General; second meeting of the Notables (Nov., 1788). 



France under Louis XVI. 127 

Attitude of the King, Queen and the Court during these years; grow- 
ing unpopularity of the Queen ; the affair of the Diamond Necklace 
(1784-85). 

Increasing demand for reform in France: general desire to remodel 
the administrative system and submit it to some degree of popular con- 
trol ; the financial condition precipitated a political crisis; the King 
and his ministers looked upon the States-General as a financial expe- 
dient; the people, as the commencement of political and administrative 
reform. 

Position of France at home and abroad on the eve of the French 
Revolution. 

Authorities : Most histories of the French Revolution begin with a sketch of 
the reign of Louis XVI. and all studies of the causes of the French Revolution 
and accounts of the Ancien Regime describe the condition of France during his 
reign. Of general secondary works, reference may be made to Jobez, La 
France sous Louis XVI.; Droz, Histoire du regne de Louis XVI.; Che" rest, La 
chute de l'ancien regime ; Tratchevsky, La France et l'Allemagne sous Louis 
XVI., and Tocqueville, Coup d'ceil sur le regne de Louis XVI. Of a more special 
character are: Correspondance secrete entre Marie Therese et Mercy- Argenteau, ed. 
Arneth and Geffroy ; Mention, Le comte de Saint-Germain et ses reformes ; 
Barral-Montferrat, Dix ans de paix armde cntre la France et l'Angleterre (1783-93); 
Segur-Dupeyron, Histoire des negotiations commerciales et maritimes de la France, 
vol. iii ; Lord Auckland, Journal and Correspondence ; Foncin, Essai sur le minis- 
tere de Turgot ; Neytnarck, Turgot et ses doctrines ; Tissot, Etude sur Turgot ; 
Condorcet, Vie de Turgot ; Necker, CEuvres ; Lavergne, Les Assemblies provin- 
ciates sous Louis XVI., and Lomenie, Beaumarchais et son temps ; La Rocheterie, 
Histoire de Marie Antoinette ; Campardon, Marie Antoinette et le proces du collier ; 
Renie, Louis XVI. et sa cour ; Louis XVI., Journal, ed. Nicolardot, and Lanzac 
de Laborie, Jean Jacques Mounier. Among primary authorities see the 
Me"moires of Besenval, Weber, Augeard, Madame Campan, Montbarrey, Segur 
and T/iiebault,and the Souvenirs of D' Hezecques. 



LECTURE 45. 



RUSSIA UNDER FREDERICK THE GREAT. 

Ruined condition of the dominions of Frederick the Great after the 
close of the Seven Years' War. 



128 Frederick the Great. 

The internal administration of Frederick: his measures for restoring 
prosperity ; paternal government ; Frederick's attitude towards agri- 
culture, manufactures and commerce ; his attempt to improve farming; 
distribution of seeds and introduction of the potato ; his encouragement 
of colonists ; establishment of ' ' land-banks ' ' ; his East India Com- 
pany ; Frederick regarded the material prosperity of his people as the 
chief end of the administration. 

Frederick's conception of monarchy : his understanding of the 
" Aufgeklarte Despotismus " ; he held that his absolutism could be 
justified only by earnest work for the good of his people. 

The administrative machinery created by Frederick the Great : fol- 
lowing his father's example, he confided the administration to a bureau- 
cracy composed of men of the middle class and dependent entirely upon 
himself; comparison between the French and the Prussian bureau- 
cracies : the former hindered, while the latter promoted, general pros- 
perity at the close of the 18th century, because Prussia was more back- 
ward in civilization than France. 

Frederick the Great's attitude towards his nobility : he employed no- 
bles in the army rather than in the civil service, and formed them into 
a military caste. 

Frederick the Great and serfdom : he maintained the authority of the 
nobles upon their estates as part of the compensation for excluding them 
from political power and as an inducement to them to continue their 
services in the army ; but he endeavored to abolish or reduce the harsh- 
ness of serfdom on the royal domains. 

Frederick the Great and the Prussian army : he perceived that the 
very existence of Prussia depended upon the efficiency of the army ; he 
therefore devoted his attention to the maintenance of a standing army 
of 200,000 men, a force disproportionate to the size and population of his 
dominions ; the excellence and the weakness of the Prussian army dur- 
ing the latter years of Frederick's reign ; his camps of exercise ; perfec- 
tion of drill and discipline maintained in the Prussian army ; Frederick's 
system imitated in other countries. 

Admiration felt in Germany for the administrative and military sys- 
tem of Frederick the Great ; he was thus enabled to draw upon the 
whole of Germany for able servants, and the Prussian idea of govern- 
ment penetrated beyond the borders of Prussia. 



Frederick the Great. 129 

Contrast between the absolutism of Eouis XIV. of France and of 
Frederick the Great of Prussia : L,ouis XIV. said, " I am the State "; 
Frederick the Great said, " I am the first servant of the State". 

Frederick the Great considered as a typical enlightened despot of the 
18th century: (1) his great public works, as the making of canals and 
roads, the draining of marshes and the improvement of Berlin ; (2) his 
endeavors to simplify and codify the system of laws in the Codex Fre- 
dericiana, the work of the Chancellor Cocceji ; (3) he discouraged all 
idea of local or municipal self-government ; (4) he insisted upon abso- 
lute toleration of religious worship while ready to pose as the protector 
of Protestantism ; (5) he established a system of compulsory primary 
education. 

Frederick the Great differed from the other enlightened despots in his 
neglect of national higher education and in his refusal to adopt sound 
economic ideas in collecting his revenue ; no general advance in intel- 
lectual development or in material prosperity is therefore to be per- 
ceived during his reign. 

The foreign policy of Frederick the Great may be considered as national 
and as German ; after the close of the Seven Years' War he abandoned 
all hope of a close alliance with England and entered into intimate re- 
lations with Catherine II. of Russia ; with her help he carried out the 
first partition of Poland, and thus united Prussia with Brandenburg 
territorially; close alliance with Russia the keynote of Frederick the 
Great's later national policy ; Frederick the Great joined the Armed 
Neutrality started by the Tsaritsa Catherine against England (1781). 

Frederick the Great's German policy : his relations with Maria 
Theresa and the Emperor Joseph II. ; the War of the Bavarian Succes- 
sion, or " Potato War "; on the death of Maximilian Joseph, Elector of 
Bavaria (30 Dec, 1777), the succession passed to the Elector Palatine, 
Charles Theodore, who was induced to cede eastern Bavaria to Austria 
in return for a guarantee of the rest ; Frederick the Great intervened, 
basing his interference on the rights of the Princes of the Empire ; a 
Prussian army invaded Bohemia (1778), but no battle took place ; 
France, engaged in the War of American Independence against Eng- 
land, declined to interfere to help Austria, and eventually, under the 
mediation of France and Russia, the Bavarian question was settled by 
the Treaty of Teschen (13 May, 1779). 



130 Frederick the Great. 

By the Treaty of Teschen, Charles, Duke of Zweibrucken, or Deux- 
Ponts, was recognized as heir to both the electorates of the childless 
Charles Theodore ; Austria received the district between Passau and 
Salzburg, called " the Quarter of the Inn "; the Elector of Saxony was 
was given 6,000,000 florins ; while Frederick the Great was guaranteed 
the succession to Anspach and Baireuth. 

The schemes of Joseph II. upon Bavaria induced Frederick the Great 
at the close of his reign once more to stand forth as defender of the 
rights of the Empire ; Joseph II. proposed to cede the Catholic Nether- 
lands to Charles Theodore in exchange for Bavaria ; to thwart this 
scheme Frederick the Great in 1785 formed the Fiirstenbund, or League 
of Princes, for the maintenance of the constitution of the Empire as 
established by the Treaties of Westphalia ; Joseph II. forced to abandon 
his scheme. 

Death of Frederick the Great (17 Aug., 1786). 

Extension of the Hohenzollern dominions during his reign ; annexa- 
tion of Silesia (1742) ; succession to East Friesland (1744) under a grant 
of the Emperor Joseph I. to Frederick I., and acquirement of Royal 
Prussia at the first partition of Poland (1773). 

Increase of the power of Prussia during his reign ; Prussia ceased to 
be merely a German state and became an European power. 

Prussia was, after the battle of Rossbach, the state to which be- 
lievers in the unity of Germany looked for inspiration and guidance. 

Character of Frederick the Great : he was the typical monarch of the 
18th as Louis XIV. was of the 17th century. 

Authorities : For the internal development of Prussia during the reign of 
Frederick the Great, see the general works by Bemer, Stenzel, Droysen, Ranke, 
Philippson and Cavaignac, cited under Lecture 36, with the special works on 
Frederick by Koser and others, cited under Lectures 37, 38, 39 and 41, and 
Oncken, Das Zeitalter Friedrichs des Grossen ; Lavisse, Etudes sur l'histoire de 
Prusse ; Reimann, Abhandlungen zur Geschichte Friedrichs des Grossen. On his 
administration see Bornhak, Isaacsohn, Stadelmaun, vol. ii, cited under Lecture 
36 ; Griinhagen, Schlesien unter Friedrich den Grossen ; Grilnberg, Die Bauernbe- 
freiung in Bohmen, Mahren, und Schlesien ; Bornhak, Die Bauernbefreiung und 
die Gutsherrlichkeit in Preussen ; Knapp, Die Bauernbefreiung und der Ursprung 
der Landarbeiter in den alteren Theilen Preussens ; Trendelenburg, Friedrich der 
Grosse und sein Grosskanzler Samuel vonCocceji; Holtze, Geschichte des Kammer- 



Catherine the Great. 131 

gerichts in Brandenburg-Preussen, and Ring, Asiatische Haudlungscompagnien 
Friedrichs des Grossen. The primary authorities are Frederick's own Works, 
his Politische Korrespondenz, ed. Koser, etc., and the State Papers published by 
the Prussian government. For his latter years see Reimann, Geschichte des 
Bairischen Erbfolgekrieges ; Beer, Zur Geschichte des Bairischen Erbfolgekrieges 
(Historische Zeitschrift, vol. xxxv.); Saint-Priest, Etudes diplomatiques, vol. i. 
Le Congres de Teschen ; Taysen, Die militarische Thatigkeit Friedrichs des Gros- 
sen wahrend seines letzten Lebensjahres ; Ranke, Die Deutschen Machte und der 
Fiirstenbund (in his Werke, vols, xxxi, xxxii); G. Wolf, CEsterreich und Preussen, 
1780-90 ; Schmidt, Geschichte der Preussisch-Deutschen Unionsbestrebungen ; 
Erdmannsdorjfer, Aus den Zeiten des Deutschen Fiirstenbundes, and C. W. von 
Dohm, Denkwiirdigkeiten, and Uber den Deutschen Fiirstenbund. For his per- 
sonality, see in addition to Carlyle, History of Frederick the Great ; Lavisse, La 
jeunesse du grand Frederic, and De grand Frederic avant 1'avenement ; Rigollot, 
Frederic II., philosophe ; Zeller, Friedrich der Grosse als Philosoph ; Caner, 
Friedrichs des Grossen Gedanken liber die fiirstliche Gewalt ; Thiebault, Mes 
souvenirs de vingt ans de sejour a Berlin ; Margravine of Baireuth, Memoirs ; 
Pollnitz, Memoirs ; De Catt, Memoiren, ed. Koser, and Desnoiresterres, Voltaire et 
Fr^ddric II. For a contemporary account of the actual condition of Prussia and 
the working of the government, see Mirabeau ( and Mauvillon), Dela Monarchic 
prussienne sous Frdderic le Grand. 



LECTURE 46. 



RUSSIA UNDER CATHERINE THE GREAT. 

Catherine the Great's administration of the Russian Empire : she fol- 
lowed the ideas of Peter the Great in ruling through a bureaucratic sys- 
tem entirely dependent upon the will of the ruler and consisting chiefly 
of foreigners, but she preserved the attachment of the Russian people 
by meeting the national wishes for territorial expansion. 

Catherine summoned an assembly from all parts and all classes of tho 
Empire to draw up a code of laws (1766-68), but Russia was not suffi- 
ciently advanced in civilization for such a benefit. 

Catherine's reforms in internal administration ; the Empire divided 
into forty-four governments, in the place of the eight of Peter the 



132 Catherine the Great. 

Great ; subdivision into districts ; the assemblies of the nobility ; lib- 
eral treatment of the towns, which were given muncipal independence; 
formation of courts of justice for the nobles, the bourgeois and the free 
peasants in each district and government, with final appeal to the Sen- 
ate ; resumption of the lands and serfs of the Church, the profits from 
which, after payment of the monks, were used for educational and 
charitable purposes ; general religious tolerance shown even to Muhani- 
madans and Jesuits. 

Catherine's great public works : she made canals and improved agri- 
culture and means of communication ; she encouraged commerce and 
manufactures ; her commercial treaties with England and France ; 
establishment of German colonies ; foundation of new cities. 

Catherine and the intellectual development of Russia : she founded 
the Russian Academy (1783) and encouraged foreigners to visit and 
describe her country ; like Frederick the Great, she kept in touch with 
the intellectual movement of Western Europe ; her friendship with 
Diderot and correspondence with Grimm. 

Attitude of Catherine towards serfdom : she endeavored to regulate 
but not abolish it ; she forbade the public sale of serfs or the separation 
of families ; the case of Daria Soltikov. 

Catherine's method of government : she kept the direction of affairs 
in her own hands ; her diligence and insight ; her attitude towards her 
ministers and her lovers. 

Catherine and her Court : she made use of her discarded lovers in 
the management of affairs ; the importance of the Orlovs (1762-72), and 
of Potemkin (1774-76) ; her wisdom in selecting her lovers from among 
the Russians and not from foreigners ; her last lover, Zubov (1789-96). 

Catherine's zeal in carrying out the plans of Peter the Great and in 
fulfilling the ambitions of the Russian people in foreign politics kept 
the Russians, and even the members of the Old Russian party, faithful 
to her in spite of her being a German and of her maintenance of West- 
ern ideas ; her adherence to Russian ideals necessary for the mainten- 
ance of her power. 

The foreign policy of Catherine the Great (1762-80) marked by alli- 
ances with England and Prussia ; treaty of commerce with England 
(1766) ; the administration of Panin ; the partition of Poland (1773), 



Catherine the Great. 133 

and first Turkish war (1768-74) ; Catherine remained on good terms 
with Frederick the Great, and expected the assistance of Prussia in the 
further partition of Poland, but she began to look to Austria for as- 
sistance in the final overthrow of the Turks. 

Catherine and Germany : first interference of Russia in a purely Ger- 
man matter at the time of the War of the Bavarian Succession (1778) ; 
Catherine declared for the maintenance of the rights of the Princes of 
the Empire ; her joint mediation with France brought about the Treaty 
of Teschen (13 May, 1779). 

Catherine's change of attitude towards England and France ; the 
Armed Neutrality (1780) ; administration of foreign affairs entrusted to 
Bezborodko (1781) ; the embassy of Segur (1784-89) ; treaty of com- 
merce with France (1787). 

Catherine and Joseph II. : the interview at Mohilev (May, 1780) ; 
Catherine, believing the Turkish question more pressing than the Po- 
lish question, entered into a close alliance with Austria ; Joseph II. 
agreed, in the hope of separating Russia from Prussia ; gradual alien- 
ation of Catherine from Prussia ; effect of the death of Frederick the 
Great (1786). 

The policy of Potemkin (b. 1736, d. 1791): after being the lover of 
Catherine from 1774 to 1776, he became her chief executive agent and 
practically independent ruler of southern Russia; he desired to overthrow 
the Turks and conquer Constantinople ; the Turks, by the intervention 
of Vergennes, permitted the Russians free navigation in the Black Sea 

(1779). 

Potemkin put down the rising of Cossacks and Tartars under 
Pugatchev (1774), and in 1783 conquered the Crimea, which had been 
declared an independent state by the Treaty of Kutschuk Kainardji ; 
the annexation of the Crimea to Russia recognized by the Turkish Sul- 
tan, through the influence of the French ambassador at Constantinople 
(11 Jan. 1784); Catherine's famous journey to the Crimea (1787); 
Catherine proposed a Quadruple Alliance of Russia, Austria, France 
and Spain. 

The Turks declared war against Russia (16 Aug., 1787); Joseph II. 
came to the help of Russia (9 Feb., 1788). 

Campaign of 1787 : Suvorov (b. 1729, d. 1800) repulsed the Turkish 
attack on the Crimea. 



1-74. The Russo-Turkish War, 1787-9*. 

Campaign of 1788 : the Austrians under Loudon took Dubitza and 
Novi-Bazar (3 Oct.), and under Coburg, with the help of the Russians, 
occupied Moldavia and took Choczim (19 Sept); defeat and flight of 
the Austrian army commanded by the Emperor Joseph (14, 20 Sept.); 
the Russians under Potemkin and Suvorov stormed Ochakov (17 Dec); 
Pitt prepared an English fleet ; Gustavus III. of Sweden declared war 
against Russia and invaded Russian Finland (July). 

Campaign of 1789 : death of the Sultan Abdul Hamid I. and acces- 
sion of Selim III. (7 Apr.); the Turks defeated by the Austrians and 
Russians under Coburg and Suvorov at Foksany (1 August) and on 
the Rymnik (22 Sept.); the Austrians under Loudon took Belgrade 
(9 Oct.) and under Coburg took Bucharest; the Russians under Po- 
temkin defeated the Turks at Tobac and took Bender (14 Nov.); the 
Russian fleet under Nassau-Siegen defeated the Swedes (24 Aug.). 

Campaign of 1790 : Clerfayt took Orsova (16 Apr.) and defeated the 
Turks at Kalafat (26 June); armistice was made between the Austrians 
and Turks at Giurgevo (19 Sept.); the Russian fleet defeated by the 
Swedes at Svenska Sound (28 June), and the Treaty of Verela signed 
between Sweden and Russia (14 Aug.); the Russians under Suvorov 
stormed Ismail (22 Dec). 

Campaign of 1791 : the Austrians made peace with the Turks at 
Sistova (4 Aug.); Catherine continued the war alone ; the Russians 
under Repnin defeated the Turks at Matchin (9 July); negotiations 
for peace ; death of Potemkin (16 Oct., 1791). 

By the Treaty of Jassy (9 Jan., 1792), peace was made between 
Russia and the Turks, by which Russia retained Ochakov and the 
coast line between the mouths of the Bug and the Dniester. 

Political history of the war with the Turks ; the Swedish war ; the 
attitude of Frederick William II. of Prussia, and of England under Pitt; 
the ' ' Russian Armament ' ' ; change in the position of affairs caused by 
the death of Joseph II. and the accession of Leopold II. (1790) ; Cath- 
erine made peace with the Turks in order to have her hands free to deal 
with Poland. 

Importance of Catherine's foreign policy in maintaining her position 
in Russia ; she brought Russia forward more prominently as a Euro- 
pean power ; changing phases of the Eastern question. 



Maria Theresa. 135 

Catherine's claim to be considered one of the typical enlightened des- 
pots of the 1 8th century ; her difficulties and advantages. 

Authorities : For short accounts of the reign of Catherine see Morfill, Story of 
Russia, and Rambaud, Histoire de la Russie, translated by Lang ; and, for a lively 
account of her personality and life, Waliszewski, Le roman d'une imperatrice, and 
Autour d'un trone. A good small book in English is Spalding, Suvoroff. 
Among secondary works should be noticed, in addition to those cited under 
Lecture 41, Bruckner, Katharina die Zweite ; Bilbassoff, Geschichte Katharina 
II., and Herrmann, Geschichte des russischen Staates ; also D'Aragon, Le Prince 
Charles de Nassau-Siegen (1784-89). Of primary authorities, Segur, Me- 
moires ; Malmesbury , Diaries and Correspondence ; Arneth, Joseph II. und Kath- 
arina von Russland : ihr Briefwechsel ; Catherine, Correspondance avec Grimm, 
are most accessible ; Beer, Die orientalische Politik CEsterreichs seit 1774, analyzes 
the policy of Austria during the latter part of Catherine's reign, and the Turkish 
side can be read in Von Hammer, Histoire de l'empire ottoman, and Zinkeisen, 
Geschichte des osmanischen Reichs. The documents relating to the reign of 
Catherine, published in the Sbornik, are numerous and important, and a full bibli- 
ography of works on the period is contained in Bilbassoff, Katharina II., Kaiserin 
von Russland, im Urtheile der Weltliteratur, 2 vols. 



LECTURE 47. 



THE EMPEROR JOSEPH II. 

The administration of the Austrian dominions under Maria Theresa : 
her maintenance and even encouragement of local liberties and local 
self-government so long as they did not interfere with the ascendancy 
of the Catholic Church ; for this reason the Catholic Netherlands and 
the Milanese were given greater independence than Bohemia, where 
Czech ideas were identified with Protestantism; contentment of the scat- 
tered provinces of the House of Hapsburg under the rule of Maria 
Theresa ; personal admiration and enthusiasm felt for her character ; 
attempt to substitute dynastic for national loyalty. 

The conservatism of Maria Theresa in administration : progress of 
centralization ; her husband, the Emperor Francis, aided by Kinsky, 
Chotek and Haugwitz, regulated the finances ; abolition of exemptions 



136 Maria Theresa. 

from taxation; Kaunitz managed foreign affairs; organization and en- 
couragement of education; improvement of the condition of the serfs 
on the royal domain; attempt made to codify the laws; encouragement 
of foreign commerce; revival of the Ostend Company with Trieste for 
its headquarters (1759). 

Foreign policy of Maria Theresa: her hatred of Frederick the Great; 
the Austro-French alliance; its results for Austria; her share in the 
partition of Poland; her Italian policy; she made use of her family to 
support Austrian influence abroad; thus her second son, Leopold, be- 
came Grand Duke of Tuscany; the third, Ferdinand, Governor- General 
of Lombardy and by marriage heir to the duchy of Modena; the fourth, 
Maximilian Elector- Archbishop of Cologne; while of her daughters 
Maria Carolina married Ferdinand IV., King of Naples and Sicily; 
Maria Amelia, Don Ferdinand IV., Duke of Parma; Marie Antoinette, 
Louis XVI. of France ; and Maria Christina, Albert, Duke of Saxe- 
Teschen, third son of Augustus II. of Saxony and Poland, through 
whom she governed the Austrian Netherlands. (See Appendix VII.) 

On the death of the Emperor Francis I. (18 Aug., 1765) his eldest 
son, Joseph II., was elected Emperor, while his second son, the Arch- 
duke Leopold, succeeded him as Grand Duke of Tuscany. 

Character and training of Joseph II. : for fifteen years he held the posi- 
tion of Emperor without being ruler of the Austrian dominions ; diffi- 
culties of this position ; his endeavors to make the power of the 
Emperor more of a reality ; his interference in foreign affairs ; his 
admiration for Frederick the Great followed by a still greater admira- 
tion for the Tsaritsa Catherine ; his share in the first partition of Po- 
land and in the War of the Bavarian Succession. 

Death of Maria Theresa (29 Nov., 1780) and accession of Joseph II. 
to the Austrian dominions. 

The Emperor Joseph II. in many ways the most typical of the en- 
lightened despots ; his personality ; his ardent desire to improve the 
condition of his people ; the three vices which led to the failure of his 
schemes for reform : (1) his desire to do every thing for the people and 
not by the people ; (2) his wish to weld the Austrian dominions into a 
homogeneous realm like France, or an administrative entity like Prussia 
and Russia ; (3) the rapidity with which he forced his reforms on the 
people without any preparation. 



Joseph II. 137 

Joseph II. 's national reforms : his attempts to unify and centralize 
the administration ; he made German the official language in the home 
dominions of the House of Hapsburg ; he endeavored to destroy all local 
franchises and to establish the same system throughout his dominions ; 
his efforts for administrative and judicial unity and regularity ; he 
divided his dominions into thirteen governments, subdivided into cir- 
cles ; in each government he established a court of justice with two 
chambers, one for the nobility and one for the bourgeoisie ; in each 
circle there was appointed an official to execute justice and protect the 
peasants. 

Joseph II. 's religious reforms : he issued an edict of toleration, per- 
mitting freedom of thought and worship (1781) ; the visit of Pope Pius 
VI. to Vienna (1782) ; Joseph II. suppressed numerous convents and 
religious orders, and endeavored to reform the administration of the 
Church ; he freed the Jews from their disabilities and permitted them to 
enter the army ; he endeavored to make education secular and to take 
it out of the hands of the Church. 

Joseph II. 's attack upon infringements of personal liberty : he abol- 
ished serfdom in Bohemia (1781), in Carinthia, Carniola and the Breis- 
gau (1782), and in Hungary (22 Aug., 1785), and inaugurated a system 
for removing feudal burdens and forced labor ; he abolished all guilds 
and corporations interfering with freedom of labor. 

Joseph II. 's efforts to improve the intellectual condition of his peo- 
ple : he established a system of primary education and freed the press 
from the censorship (1781). 

Joseph II. 's encouragement of public works and improvement of 
means of communication. 

Joseph II.'s encouragement of trade and commerce : bis endeavors to 
obtain from the Dutch the freedom of the River Scheldt. 

Joseph II.'s fiscal reforms : his endeavors to introduce the physiocratic 
principles of taxation. 

The result of Joseph II.'s reforms was to rouse discontent and even 
rebellion throughout his dominions j the Hungarian magnates were dis- 
gusted at his freeing the serfs and all the Magyars at his attempts at 
Germanization ; the Czechs in Bohemia were apprehensive that his re- 
forms would crush them further ; the Tyrolese were in a ferment at his 



138 Joseph II. 

measures against the Church, and the Belgians were forced into open 
rebellion, both by his interference with their local government and by 
his measures against the Catholic Church. 

In spite of the seething discontent in his own dominions, Joseph II. 
pursued an active German and foreign policy. 

The German policy of Joseph II.: he endeavored to make the Em- 
pire a reality; fears of the German princes at this action ; his attempt 
to create a German Church practically independent of the Papacy; the 
suspicion created that his German policy was to promote only the 
power of Austria heightened by his proposal to exchange the Austrian 
Netherlands for Bavaria ; this scheme thwarted by the formation of the 
Fiirstenbund by Frederick the Great (1785). 

Joseph IPs Dutch policy: he endeavored, while the Protestant Neth- 
erlands were torn by the struggle between the Stadtholder and the 
" Patriots," to induce the Dutch to give up the barrier fortresses and 
to free the Scheldt to commerce ; by the Treaty of Fontainebleau ( 10 
Nov., 1785) the barrier fortresses, which Joseph had seized in 1781-82, 
were confirmed to him by the mediation of France, but the closing of the 
Scheldt was maintained ; effect of Joseph II. 's Dutch policy on England ; 
it led to the hearty support of the House of Orange and indirectly to 
the formation of the Triple Alliance between England, Prussia and the 
United Provinces (1788). 

Joseph IP's Russian policy: his admiration for the Tsaritsa Cath- 
erine led him to engage, while his dominions were in almost open in- 
surrection, in war with the Turks. 

Position of the Eastern Question during the reign of Joseph II.: 
attitude of the Triple Alliance towards the schemes of Joseph and 
Catherine. 

Importance of the reign of Joseph II. : his activity and endeavor to 
promote internal reforms contrasted with the attitude taken in France 
by his brother-in-law, Louis XVI. 

Authorities: The best small books in English are Bright, Maria Theresa, 
and Bright, Joseph II. Among secondary works on the period are A. Wolf and 
Zwiedeneck-Siidenhorst, CEsterreich unter Maria Theresia, Joseph II. und Leopold 
II., and Beidtel, Geschichte der oesterreichischen Staatsverwaltung, vol. i, 1740- 
92. On the policy and government of Maria Theresa see the books cited under Lee- 



Joseph II. 139 

tare 37, especially Arneth, Geschichte Maria Theresias, 10 vols ; A. Wolf, CEster- 
reich unter Maria Theresia, with Plot, Le regne de Marie TheVese dans les Pays-Bas 
autrichiens ; Meynert, Kaiser Franz. I., and the invaluable collections of letters con- 
tained in Arneth, Maria Theresia und Joseph II. : Ihre Correspondenz sammt Briefen 
Joseph's an seiuem Bruder Leopold, 3 vols, and Brief e der Kaiserin MariaTheresia an 
ihre Kinder und Freunde, and in Arneth and Geffroy, Correspondance secrete entre 
Marie Thdrese et le Comte de Mercy-Argenteau avec les lettres de Marie Therese 
et de Marie Antoinette. For the reign of Joseph II. see Huber, Geschichte Josephs 
II. ; Gross-Hoffitiger, Lebens und Regierungsgeschichte Josephs II. ; Paganel, His- 
toire de Joseph II.; Von Hock and Bidermann, Der CEsterreichische Staatsrath 
(1760-1848); G. Wolf, (Esterreich und Preussen, 1780-1790, Das Unterrichtswesen 
in CEsterreich unter Josef II., and Josefina ; Ramshom, Kaiser Joseph II. und 
seine Zeit ; Meynert, Kaiser Joseph II. ; Wendrinsky, Kaiser Josef II. ; fdger, 
Kaiser Joseph II. und Leopold II., Reform und Gegenreform ; Ritter, Kaiser 
Joseph II. und seine kirchlichen Reformen ; Zieglauer von Blumenthal, Die 
politische Reformbewegung in Siebenbiirgen zur Zeit Josefs II. und Leopolds 
II.; Frank, Das Toleranz-Patent Kaiser Joseph II.; Gachard, Etudes sur l'histoire 
des Pays-Bas, vols, ii, iii ; Hubert, De Charles-Quint a Joseph II., dtude sur la 
condition des Protestants en Belgique, edit de tolerance de 1781 ; Schlitter, 
Die Reise des Papstes Pius VI. nachWien (Fontes rerum Austriacarum, vol. 
xlvii); Beer, Die orientalische Politik CEsterreichs seit 1774; Lindner, Die Auf- 
hebung der Kloster in Deutseh-Tirol, 1782-87; A. Wolf, Die Aufhebung der 
Kloster in Inner-cesterreich, 1782-90 ; Lustkandl, Die Josephinischen Ideen und 
ihr Erfolg, and Brunner, Joseph II. : Charakteristik seines Lebens, seiner Regierung, 
und seiner Kirchenreform. For this reign there are also several invaluable collec- 
tions of letters : Arneth, Joseph II. und Leopold von Toscana : Ihr Briefwechsel 
von 1781-90; Joseph II. und Katharina von Russland : Ihr Briefwechsel; and 
Marie Antoinette, Joseph II. und Leopold II.: Ihr Briefwechsel; Arneth and 
Flammermont, Correspondance secrete du Comte de Mercy-Argenteau avec 1'em- 
pereur Joseph II. et le prince de Kaunitz ; Beer, Joseph II., Leopold II. und 
Kaunitz ; Ihr Briefwechsel, and Brunner, Correspondances intimes de l'empereur 
Joseph II. avec le comte de Cobenzl et le prince de Kaunitz. 



LECTURE 48. 



THE NORTHERN COUNTRIES OF EUROPE TO 1789. 

Condition of the Protestant Netherlands during the 18th century : 
their commercial and financial prosperity, but decline of their naval and 



140 The Dutch Revolution (1786-87). 

military power ; the two parties — the Republican burghers and the sup- 
porters of the House of Orange ; the French invasion caused William 
IV. of Orange to be declared hereditary Stadtholder (1747) ; William 
IV., and, after his death (1751), his widow, Anne of England, daugh- 
ter of George II., to 1759, and Louis Ernest of Brunswick to 1766, 
pursued a policy of close alliance with England, but remained neutral 
during the Seven Years' War. 

William V. (b. 1748) undertook the Stadtholderate in 1766, but Louis 
of Brunswick remained his chief adviser ; growth of the " Patriot " party, 
which embraced the doctrines of the French writers, and was opposed to 
the semi-royal authority of the Stadtholder and the oligarchical power 
of the burghers ; this party, especially in Holland, desired to help the 
insurgents in America, while commercial interests caused the adhesion 
of the Dutch to the principles of the Armed Neutrality ; their conduct 
caused England to declare war (1780) ; by the Treaty of Versailles the 
Dutch ceded Negapatam, their chief factory in India, to England. 

The Dutch Revolution : William V. accused of favoring the English 
during the war ; Louis of Brunswick forced to resign (1784) ; riots in 
the cities ; William V. driven from the Hague (1785) ; the Dutch " Pa- 
triots " appealed for help to France ; excitement in the cities ; insurrec- 
tion of the provinces of Holland and Utrecht against the Stadtholder 
(17S6-87) ; Vergennes, and after him Montmorin, afraid to send regular 
troops for fear of renewing the war with England, but permitted the 
raising of a body of French volunteers, the Legion of Maillebois. 

Pitt resolved to restore the power of the Stadtholder : Wilhelmina, 
Princess of Orange, arrested by the " Patriots" (28 June, 1787) ; Har- 
ris, afterwards Lord Malmesbury (b. 1746, d. 1820), induced Frederick 
William II. of Prussia to restore his brother-in-law, William V. ; a 
Prussian army under Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick 
(b. 1735, d. 1806) occupied Amsterdam (10 Sept., 1787) ; the " Patriot " 
leaders exiled ; Van de Spiegel made Grand Pensionary ; Malmesbury 
concluded the Triple Alliance between England, Prussia and the United 
Provinces (15 April, 1788). 

History of Denmark and Norway during the 18th century : growth 
of commercial prosperity, and literary and scientific development, under 
the autocracy of enlightened kings and ministers ; struggle between 



Denmark in the 18th Century. 141 

Germanizing and national tendencies ; steady improvement in internal 
administration ; foreign policy based on a close alliance with England ; 
close relationship between the royal families of England and Denmark ; 
territorial policy aimed at the absorption of Holstein. 

Reign of Christian VI. (1730-46): his Puritanism; Germanizing 
policy of the Queen, Sophia Magdalen of Baireuth ; his encouragement 
of commerce and of the navy ; the Danish East India Company ; chance 
of uniting Denmark with Sweden lost in 1743 by the election of Adol- 
phus Frederick of Holstein to be heir to the throne of Sweden, instead 
of the Crown Prince of Denmark. 

Reign of Frederick V. (1746-66) : reaction from Germanism and 
Puritanism ; his two wives, Douisa of England and Juliana of Bruns- 
wick ; ministry of John Bernstorff (1751-70) ; danger threatened to 
Danish independence by the accession of Peter of Holstein to the throne 
of Russia as Peter III. in 1762; threats of the Tsar to destroy Den- 
mark ; Catherine, on usurping the throne of Russia, made peace with 
Denmark and allowed Holstein to be exchanged for the bishopric of 
Liibeck and the duchy of Oldenburg, which were granted to the House 
of Holstein- Gottorp (1767). 

Reign of Christian VII. (1 766-1808) : Struensee (b. 1737) made chief 
minister (1770) ; his character ; his philosophical ideas and use of his 
power ; he represented the German, philosophical and sweeping reform 
party ; he suppressed the censorship of the press, abolished the Council 
of State, reorganized the army, established religious toleration, simpli- 
fied the collection of the revenue, encouraged education and reformed 
the law and the judicial administration ; Struensee accused of being too 
intimate with the Queen, Caroline Matilda, sister of George III, of 
England ; a conspiracy formed against him ; he was arrested (17 Jan., 
1772) and executed (28 April, 1772). 

Andrew Bernstorff (b. 1735, d. 1797), chief minister : in foreign affairs 
he maintained the English alliance ; in internal affairs he carried out 
gradual reforms ; insanity of the King ; the Queen Dowager forced 
Bernstorff to resign (1780), and called Guldberg to office ; Denmark 
joined the Armed Neutrality (1780) ; the Crown Prince Frederick seized 
the government (1784) and recalled Bernstorff to office ; the reforms of 
Bernstorff; he prohibited the negro slave trade and (20 June, 1788) 



142 Sweden in the 18th Century. 

finally abolished serfdom in Denmark ; the Jews allowed the rights of 
citizens ; by an arrangement with Russia, Denmark attacked Sweden 
in 1788, but peace was made the same year by the intervention of the 
Triple Alliance. 

Sweden in the 18th century : her losses by the treaties which con- 
cluded the Northern War, and especially by the Treaty of Nystadt 
(1721), reduced her to a second-rate power; the election of Ulrica 
Eleanor, younger sister of Charles XII., to the throne of Sweden 
(1719), instead of the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, transferred all power to 
the Senate, composed of the nobles, which was answerable to the Es- 
tates, or Diet ; powerlessness of the Swedish monarchy ; concentration 
of executive, legislative and judicial authority in the hands of the no- 
bles ; their poverty, rapacity and want of patriotism ; rivalry of two 
parties — the "Hats," relying on France, bribed by France, looking for 
the reconquest of Finland and Stettin, and desirous of keeping in touch 
with Western Europe, and the " Caps," bribed by Russia, and hoping 
by Russian help to conquer Denmark and Pomerania. 

Reign of Ulrica Eleanor (17 19-41) and of her husband Frederick of 
Hesse-Cassel, Frederick I. of Sweden (1720-51): rule of the "Caps" 
(1721-38); administration of Count Arvid Horn ; the " Hats " obtained 
the mastery and declared war against Russia at the request of France 
(4 Aug., 1741); the Swedes defeated at Wilmanstrand (3 Sept., 1741) 
and Helsingfors (1742); by the Treaty of Abo with Russia (23 Jan., 
1743) a small cession of territory was made to Russia, and Adolphus 
Frederick of Holstein, Bishop of Liibeck, was elected heir to the Swed- 
ish throne at the request of the Tsaritsa Elizabeth, in the place of his 
cousin, Peter of Holstein-Gottorp, the heir to the Russian throne ; de- 
feat of the plan to choose the Crown Prince of Denmark and thus 
to unite the Scandinavian countries ; personality of Frederick I. ; his 
code of civil law (1736); his patronage of Linnaeus and foundation of 
the Academy of Stockholm. 

Reign of Adolphus Frederick (1751-71); he was married to Louisa 
Ulrica, sister of Frederick the Great; the "Hats" remained in power 
during the greater part of his reign ; attempts of the King, spurred on 
by the Queen, to restore the royal authority ; execution of Horn and 
Brahe (1756); at the demand of France and Russia, the Swedes took 



Gustavus III. of Sweden. 143 

part in the Seven Years War and attacked Prussia ; their part in the 
war ; after the death of the Tsaritsa Elizabeth, Adolphus Frederick 
made peace with Frederick the Great at Hamburg (20 May, 1762); the 
"Caps" recovered power (1765); at the instigation of his son, Gustavus, 
the King made a vain attempt to overthrow the power of the nobles 
and the Senate by an appeal to the Estates of Sweden (1769). 

Schemes of Russia, Prussia and Denmark for the partition of Sweden 
(1764, 1766, 1769). 

Reign of Gustavus III. (1771-92): his character and education ; his 
travels ; his attachment to France ; his adoption of the theory of en- 
lightened despotism ; supported by Vergennes, the French ambassador 
to Sweden, by a coup d'etat (19 Aug., 1772) he destroyed the power of 
the Senate and assumed all executive authority, leaving the control of 
taxation to the Estates ; his internal policy; sweeping reforms ; he 
abolished torture, encouraged commerce, improved the administration 
and suppressed the censorship of the press ; his difficulties with the 
Estates ; his autocratic actions. 

The foreign policy of Gustavus III. : he joined the Armed Neutrality 
(1780); to win national support he attacked Russia (1788); misbe- 
havior of the Swedish army in Finland ; the malcontents led by the 
king's brother, Charles, Duke of Sudermania ; Sweden attacked by 
Denmark (1788); coup d'etat of 1789 (20 Feb.); Gustavus declared a 
new fundamental law of Sweden, that " the King shall administer the 
affairs of State as he thinks best ' ' ; victory won by the Swedish navy 
at Svenska Sound (9 July, 1790); Treaty of Verela signed with Russia 
(14 Aug., 1790) establishing the status quo ante bellum. 

Claims of Gustavus III. to be considered a typical enlightened despot 
of the 1 8th century. 

Authorities : For the Dutch Revolution see Ellis, History of the Late Revolu- 
tion in the Dutch Republic ; Caillard, Memoire sur la Revolution de Hollande, pub- 
lished in Sigur, Decade Historique, vol. iii ; De Witt, Une invasion prussienne 
en Hollande en 1787 ; Bohtlingk, Die hollandische Revolution 1787 und der 
deutsche Fiirstenbund ; Schenk, Wilhelm der Funfte ; Nijhoff, De Hertog van 
Brunswijk (1750-84); Colenbrander, De Patriottentijd (1776-1786); Pfau, Geschichte 
des preussischen Feldzugs in der Provinz Holland im Jahre 1787, and as primary 
authorities, Malmesbury, Diaries and Correspondence; William V., Brieven 
aan Baron van Ljjnden van Blitterswijk, ed. De Bas ; Hogendorp, Brieven en 



144 ^ ie Mediterranean in the 18th Century, 

Gedenkschriften ; Van de Spiegel, Zijne Tijdgenooten, ed. Vreede, vols, i-iii, and 
De Jonge, Documents politiques et diplomatiques sur les revolutions de 1787 et 1795 
dans la republique des Provinces-Unies. For Danish history see Allen, Histoire 
de Danernark ; Vedel, Correspondance ministerielle du comte J. H. E. Bernstorff, 
1751-70 ; Correspondance entre Bernstorff et Choiseul, 1758-66 ; Host, Graf Struen- 
see und sein Ministerium ; Falkenskjold, Memoires a. l'epoque du ministere et de la 
catastrophe du comte de Struensee ; Lagreze, La reine Caroline Mathilde et le 
comte Struensee ; Wraxall, Life and Times of Caroline Matilda, Queen of Den- 
mark, and Wittich, Struensee. For Swedish history see Malmstrdm, Sveriges 
politiska historia (1718-1772); Heidenstam, Une sceur du grand Freddric, Louise 
Ulrique, reine de Suede ; Bain, Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries ; Geffroy, 
Gustave III. et la cour de France ; Bonneville de Marsangy, Le comte de Ver- 
gennes, son ambassade en Suede (1771-74); Posselt, Geschichte Gustavs III., and 
Sheridan, History of the Late Revolution in Sweden. As a primary authority 
see the papers of Gustavus III., ed. Geijer. 



LECTURE 49. 



THE SOUTHERN COUNTRIES OF EUROPE TO 1789. 

Decreasing commercial importance of the Mediterranean during the 
1 8th century, and consequent decreasing political importance of the 
countries surrounding it : the civilization of Europe began to center in 
the northwest of the continent, in England, France and the United 
Provinces ; causes of this change. 

The condition of the Mediterranean in the 18th century : ravages of 
the Barbary corsairs ; the trade of the Levant absorbed by the English ; 
effect of their occupation of Gibraltar and Minorca ; Venice monopolized 
the trade of the Adriatic ; government of Malta by the Knights of Saint 
John of the Hospital. 

Portugal in the 18th century : its commercial and political depend- 
ence on England after the Methuen Treaty (1703) ; its attempts to get 
free from the English alliance and to enter into close relations with 
Spain ; Spain's desire to annex Portugal ; internal government ; the 
monarchy dependent upon Brazil for its revenue ; misgovernment of 
Brazil ; disappearance of the Portuguese power in Asia. 



Pombal. 145 

The reign of John V. ( 1 706-50) : his endeavors to imitate Louis XIV. ; 
the reign of Joseph (1750-77); the earthquake at Lisbon (1 Nov., 
1755); the administration of Pombal (b. 1699, d. 1782), one of the en- 
lightened ministers of the 18th century ; his internal policy and re- 
forms ; his belief in autocracy ; Pombal took the lead in the suppression 
of the Society of Jesus ; he abolished slavery in Portugal (25 May, 1773), 
but maintained negro slavery in Brazil ; he reformed the administra- 
tion and the judicial system ; he encouraged trade and manufactures ; 
he promoted higher education, founded more than 800 schools, and re- 
organized the University of Coimbra ; Pombal' s foreign policy ; he de- 
sired to throw off the yoke of England ; the Spaniards invaded Portugal 
under the terms of the Pacte de Famille ; they were defeated with the 
assistance of England ; peace signed between Spain and Portugal (10 
Feb., 1763); reign of Maria I. (1777-1816) and Pedro III. (1777-86); 
dismissal of Pombal ; maintenance of his system ; Portugal joined the 
Armed Neutrality (1782); insanity of Maria I. (1788) and assumption 
of the government by Prince John (1792). 

Spain in the 18th century : povertj^ and exhaustion, material and 
intellectual, of the county ; character of the government of the Bour- 
bon kings of Spain ; the royal revenue derived from the Spanish col- 
onies in America ; their misgovernment ; attempts made to maintain a 
strong navy ; abandonment of commerce. 

The latter years of the reign of Philip V. (1700-46): the administra- 
tions of Patino (1726-36), the successor of Ripperda, and of Campillo 
(1741-43); the reign of Ferdinand VI. (1746-59); the influence of Fari- 
nelli ; administrations of La Ensenada (1743-54) and of Wall (1754-63). 

The reign of Charles III., formerly King of Naples and Sicily (1759- 
88): Charles III. one of the enlightened despots; his efforts to improve 
the condition of Spain ; his difficulties ; excellence of his ministers ; 
administrative reforms of Squillacci (1759-66); their unpopularity; forced 
from office by a riot at Madrid ; Aranda (b. 17 18, d. 1799) and the ex- 
pulsion of the Jesuits; his internal administration (1766-73); its spirit 
of progress carried on by Florida Blanca (1773-92); their belief in autoc- 
racy and centralization ; O'Reilly reformed the army and rebuilt the 
navy ; Campomanes established a national system of education, and 
with Jovellanos reformed the judicial system and introduced the ideas 



146 Charles III. of Spain. 

of the political economists ; Cabarrus founded the Bank of St. Charles, 
(17S2), and established a national system of credit ; revivalof commerce 
after throwing open to all Spanish ports trade with America ; reform of 
the currency ; encouragement of public works and improvement of agri- 
culture ; endeavor of Olavide to restore prosperity in Andalusia ; his 
overthrow by the Inquisition (1776). 

The foreign policy of Charles III. : its keynotes — the recovery of Gib- 
raltar and the conquest of Portugal ; Spain attempted to achieve these 
ends by the signature of the Pacte de Famille with France (15 Aug., 
1761); Spain declared war against England (1762) and invaded Por- 
tugal ; defeat of the Spaniards, and loss of Havana and Manilla ; by the 
Treaty of Paris (1763) Spain ceded Florida to England and recovered 
Havana and Manilla ; France ceded Louisiana to Spain in compensa- 
tion for the loss of Florida ; Grimaldi, Minister for Foreign Affairs (1763- 
76) and Florida Blanca (1776-92); Spain joined France against Eng- 
land in the War of American Independence ; the siege of Gibraltar; 
part played by the Spanish navy during the war ; by the Treaty of Ver- 
sailles (1783) Spain recovered Minorca and Florida ; expeditions made 
by Spain against the Barbary corsairs (1775, 17 85 ). 

Death of Charles III. (14 Dec, 1788); importance of his reign; 
accession of Charles IV. 

Italy in the 18th century: Austrian influence practically supreme; 
the House of Savoy, which ruled in Sardinia and Piedmont, the only 
national dynasty in Italy. 

I. The Papacy: Pope Pius VI. — Braschi (1775-99); his administra- 
tion; his endeavor to drain the Pontine marshes ; foundation of the 
Clementine Museum; his difficulties with the Emperor Joseph II., the 
Grand Duke Leopold and Tanucci; his visit to Vienna (1782). 

II. The Two Sicilies ; the government of Don Carlos, afterwards 
Charles III. of Spain (1735-59); the administration of Tanucci (b. 1698, 
d. 1783), one of the most enlightened ministers of his time; he abol- 
ished feudalism in Naples; his attempt to reform the laws; his encour- 
agement of art and education ; his action against the power of the 
Church; Charles on his accession to the throne of Spain gave Naples 
and Sicily to his third son, Ferdinand IV. (1 759-1 825) ; during the 
minority of the young king, Tanucci remained in power ; he con- 



Italy in the 18th Century. 147 

tinued his reforms; he cooperated in the suppression of the Jesuits and 
occupied Benevento and Ponte Corvo (1769); his struggle with the 
Papacy and suppression of useless bishoprics ; as a result of his mar- 
riage (1768) with Maria Carolina, daughter of Maria Theresa, the king 
dismissed Tanucci (1776); supremacy of the Oueen ; influence of Acton 
(b. 1736, d. 1811); backwardness of the island of Sicily; its "Parlia- 
ment"; failure of the attempted reforms of Domenico Caracciolo (1781). 

III. Tuscany: the administration of the Grand Duke Leopold, second 
son of Maria Theresa (1765-90); his reforms; his code of laws; he 
reduced the number of bishoprics and monasteries; he improved the 
material condition of Tuscany; his administrative reforms; his judicial 
reforms; he adopted the economic ideas of the Physiocrats and abol- 
ished all restrictions on industry and commerce ; his patronage of 
higher education; he founded the prosperity of Leghorn; he disbanded 
his army ; the Grand Duke Leopold the most enlightened of the 
benevolent despots. 

IV. Parma : the reign of Don Philip (1749-65); the administration of 
Du Tillot, Marquis of Felino (b. 1711, d. 1774); his reforms ; his patron- 
age of higher education ; his action against the monasteries ; his en- 
couragement of manufactures ; the reign of Don Ferdinand (1 765-1 802) 
Du Tillot' s scheme of marrying him to the heiress of Modena foiled 
Du Tillot' s struggle with the Papacy and suppression of the Jesuits 
he abolished the Inquisition and reorganized the University of Parma 
(1768) ; Don Ferdinand married Maria Amelia, daughter of Maria 
Theresa (1769); dismissal of Du Tillot by the influence of the Duchess 
(1771); greatness of Du Tillot ; "a great minister of a little state ". 

V. Modena : reign of Francis III. (1737-80); he supported France 
in the War of the Austrian Succession, but after the Peace of Aix-la- 
Chapelle (1748) became Governor- General of Lombardy for Maria 
Theresa ; reign of Hercules III. (1780-1803); his avarice and unpopu- 
larity ; his heiress, Maria Beatrice, married the Archduke Ferdinand, 
third son of Maria Theresa (1771). 

VI. Lombardy : the Milanese and Mantua governed as possessions 
of Austria by the Duke of Modena (1748-80) and by the Archduke 
Ferdinand (1780-96); enlightened administration of Count Firmian 
(1759-82); his reforms and encouragement of higher education ; intel- 



148 Italy in the 18th Century. 

lectual development in Milan ; the great Lombard writers and men of 
science, Beccaria, Verri, Spallanzani and Volta. 

VII. Kingdom of Sardinia : abdication of Victor Amadeus II. (1730); 
the reign of Charles Emmanuel III. (1730-73); he pursued the tradi- 
tional policy of the House of Savoy ; his territorial gains in the War of 
the Polish Succession and in the War of the Austrian Succession ; the 
the reign of Victor Amadeus III. (1773-96); his close alliance with 
France ; influenced by the enlightened spirit of the century ; his build- 
ings at Nice ; improvement of his army on the Prussian model ; ab- 
sence of serfdom in Piedmont. 

VIII. The Republic of Venice : its mastery of the Adriatic and gov- 
ernment of the Ionian Islands ; conservatism of its administration ; 
Venice, " the holiday city of Europe "; splendor of its festivals. 

IX. The Republic of Genoa : its decline in prosperity during the 18th 
century ; insurrection in Corsica (1729) ; Corsica declared its independ- 
ence (1733); election of Theodore, Baron von Neuhof, as King of Corsica 
(1736); the Genoese requested the assistance of France; the French 
under Maillebois conquered the Corsicans (1739); the French evacuated 
Corsica (1743); the second insurrection of the Corsicans, headed by 
Paoli (b. 1726, d. 1807), also suppressed by French troops (1753-56); 
third insurrection under Paoli (1759); the Republic of Genoa ceded Cor- 
sica to France (1768); conquest of the island by the French (1769). 

X. The petty states of Italy : the republics of Eucca and San Marino; 
the principalities of Piombino and Monaco. 

The Turks during the 18th century : steady decline of their power ; 
the relations of the Sublime Porte with France ; the wars of the Turks 
with Austria and Russia closed by the Treaties of Passarowitz (17 18), 
Belgrade (1739), Kutschuk Kainardji (1774), Sistova (1790) and Jassy 
(1792); causes of the decay of the Turkish power ; the dismemberment 
of the Turkish dominions becomes one of the two problems of the East- 
ern question. 

Authorities : For Malta, Boisgelin, Ancient and Modern Malta. For Portu- 
gal, Morse Stephens, Story of Portugal ; Otiveira Martins, Historia de Portugal ; 
Latino Coelho, Historia de Portugal desde os fins do XVII. Seculo ate* 1814; 
Smith, Memoirs of the Marquis of Pombal ; Moore, Alberoni, Ripperda and Pom- 
bal ; with the anonymous Administration du Marquis de Pombal, 4 vols., and the 



Germany in the 18 th Century. 149 

so-called Memoires du Marquis de Pombal, 4 vols. For Spain, Coxe, Memoirs of 
the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon; Rosseeuw-Saint-Hilaire, Histoiie 
d'Espagne, vols. 12, 13 ; Lafuente, Storia general de Espafia, vols. 19-21 ; Ferrer 
del Rio, Historia del reinado de Carlos III., 4 vols.; DanviLla y Collado, Reinado 
de Carlos III., 6 vols ; Muriel, Gobierno de Sefior Rey Don Carlos III ; Rodriguez 
Villa, El Marques de la Ensenada ; Lavalle, Don Pablo Olavide ; Colmeiro, His- 
toria de la Ecouomia politica en Espana ; Campomanes, Obras ; Jovellanos, Obras ; 
with the chapters on Spain in Schlosser, History of the Eighteenth Century, trans- 
lated by Davison. For Italy, Botta, Histoire d'ltalie depuis 1789 a, 1814 ; Cantu, 
Histoire des Italiens ; Broseh, Geschichte des Kirchenstaats ; Orsi, Storia degli 
ultimi quattro secoli della Chiesa ; Artaud, Vie du pape Pie VI. ; Collelta, Gtoria 
del Reame di Napoli dal 1734 sino al 1825 ; Lauria, Di Bernardo Tanucci e dei suoi 
tempi ; Gagniere, La reine Marie Caroline de Naples ; Helfert, Maria Karolina, 
Konigin von Neapel ; Zobi, Storia civile della Toscana dal 1737 al 1848, 6 vols.; 
Potter, Vie et memoires de Scipion de Ricci, eveque de Pistoie, 4 vols. ; Nisard, 
Du Tillot ; Cantu, V abate Parini e la Lombardia nel secolo passato ; Bianchi, 
Storia della Monarchia Piemontese, 1773-1861 ; Belgiojoso, Histoire de la maison 
de Savoie ; Costa-Beauregard, Memoires historiques sur la maison royale de Savoie; 
Candti, Storia del regno di Carlo Emauuele III.; Daru, Histoire de la repub- 
lique de Venise ; Jacobi, Histoire generale de la Corse ; Renucci, Storia di 
Corsica ; Gregorovius, Corsica ; Arrighi, Histoire de Pascal Paoli ; and Boswell , 
Account of Corsica and Memoirs of Paoli. For the Turks, Creasy, History of the 
Ottoman Turks ; Von Hammer, Histoire de l'empire ottoman ; Zinkeisen, Ges- 
chichte des osmanischen Reichs ; with Saint-Priest, Memoires sur l'ambassade 
francaise en Turquie ; Bonnac, Memoire historique sur l'ambassade de France a. 
Constantinople, ed. Schefer (with Bonnac's correspondence, 1716-24); Vandal, 
Une ambassade francaise en Orient sous Louis XV., la mission du marquis de 
Villeneuve (1728-41); Bonneville de Marsangy, Le chevalier de Vergennes, son 
ambassade a Constantinople (1755-69); Pingand, Choiseul-Goufher (17S4-92); and 
Baron de Toll, Memoirs concerning the War of Turkey with Russia. 



LECTURE 50. 



GERMANY TO 1789. 

The condition of Germany in the 18th century : the establishment of 
the independence of the states of the Empire by the Treaties of West- 
phalia had destroyed the sense of German nationality ; looseness of ths 
bonds which held the Empire together. 



150 The Empire in the 18th Century. 

History of the Holy Roman Empire in the 18th century : conditions 
produced during the War of the Austrian Succession ; the weakness of 
the Emperor Charles VII.; innovation at the election of 1745, when the 
envoy of Maria Theresa, as Queen of Bohemia, was permitted to vote ; 
war of execution declared against Frederick the Great (1756), under 
which an army of imperial troops was defeated with the French at Ross- 
bach, but when it was proposed to place Frederick under the ban of the 
Empire, in 1758, the Protestant princes threatened to secede ; election of 
Joseph II. as King of the Romans (1764); he became Emperor (1765). 

Impotence of the Diet of the Empire, which since 1663 had remained 
in perpetual session and consisted only of envoys : in 1788 only four- 
teen princes of the Empire and eight free cities maintained representa- 
tives at Ratisbon ; the Imperial Diet had thus ceased to be an operative 
bond of federal union. 

The judicial auihority of the Empire: scandalous inefficiency of the 
Imperial Tribunal at Wetzlar; Joseph II. commenced a visitation of the 
Tribunal (1767-76), but effected no valid reform; greater vigor of the 
Aulic Council, especially during the reign of Joseph II.; while the 
Imperial Tribunal neglected appeals laid before it, the Aulic Council 
dealt more promptly than before with cases against princes for misuse 
of power. 

Utter inadequacy of the executive power of the Empire: mismanage- 
ment and inefficiency of the Circles; inability of the Empire, as such, 
to carry on war proved in the campaign of Rossbach ; disputes as to 
raising, commanding and paying imperial troops; a Jew contracted for 
the raising of the quota of soldiers demanded from the Bishop of Pader- 
born. 

Efforts of Joseph II. to make the imperial power a reality: besides try- 
ing to reform the Imperial Tribunal and punishing bad rulers, he tried 
to take a more active part in the Imperial Diet; jealousy aroused by 
this action among the Princes of the Empire; the project of exchanging 
the Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria increased the apprehension of the 
ambitions of Austria ; Frederick the Great seized the opportunity to 
form the Fiirstenbund, or League of Princes (23 July, 1785); impor- 
tance of this movement; it accentuated the rivalry between Prussia and 
Austria for the leadership of Germany; Joseph's idea of uniting Ger- 
many under the Emperor effectually thwarted. 



Frederick William II. of Prussia. 151 

Joseph II. stood forth as the champion of the German Church: the 
interference of the Rota at Rome with the metropolitan court at 
Mayence in the case of an appeal from Spires caused a clause to be 
inserted in the capitulation of 1765 declaring it necessary to check all 
encroachments on the liberties of the Church in Germany; the action 
of Joseph caused the Pope to withdraw his claims; effect of Joseph II. 's 
action minimized by his persistence in interfering with the rights of 
German ecclesiastical Princes of the Empire in Austria. 

Imitation of the splendor and despotism of L,ouis XIV. almost uni- 
versal among German princes during the first half of the 18th century; 
followed during the second half by a general adherence to the ideas of 
enlightened despotism; influence of Frederick the Great in bringing 
about this change. 

The situation in Prussia at the death of Frederick the Great (1786): 
the character of his nephew and successor, Frederick William II. (b. 
1744); the internal policy of the new king; he maintained the admin- 
istrative system of his uncle, but in the place of personal supervision left 
the direction to ministers of mediocre capacity ; both the army and the 
civil service suffered from the change of monarchs ; the Prussian Court ; 
influence of favorites, male and female ; Frederick William II. 's atti- 
tude towards religion ; he departed from the toleration which his uncle 
had established ; influence of the mystics, Rosicrucians, etc. ; his ex- 
travagance ; he spent the treasures accumulated by his uncle ; difficulty 
experienced in raising an adequate revenue. 

The foreign policy of Frederick William II. : the management of for- 
eign affairs left to Hertzberg (b. 1725, d. 1795), who had been minister 
under Frederick the Great ; he desired to renew the former friendship 
with England ; the opportunity afforded by the Dutch Revolution of 
1785-87 ; signature of the Triple Alliance between England, Prussia 
and the United Provinces (15 April, 1788); Hertzberg, supported by the 
Triple Alliance, prepared to intervene in the settlement of the Eastern 
question. 

The most remarkable enlightened despot in Germany was Charles 
Frederick (b. 1728, d. 181 1), Margrave of Baden-Baden and Baden- 
Durlach ; his writings on political economy and attempt to put eco- 
nomic ideas into practice; he abolished serfdom (23 July, 1783) and 



152 Germany in the iSth Century. 

established a scheme of primary education ; among other princes sim- 
ilarly enlightened may be noted Maximilian Joseph, Elector of Ba- 
varia, a great law reformer and codifier, and Charles Theodore, Elector 
Palatine and Elector of Bavaria, who suppressed many convents, and, 
with the help of Count Rumford (b. 1753, d. 1814), promoted reforms, 
but who persecuted the Protestants; Frederick Augustus, Elector of 
Saxony ; Clement Wenceslas of Saxony, Elector- Archbishop of Treves, 
and the Archduke Maximilian, Elector-Archbishop of Cologne, who 
were both tolerant rulers, and Fiirstenberg, who administered the bish- 
opric of Miinster for many years ; against these enlightened princes may 
be set the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, who sold his subjects to England 
for the American war, the Duke of Wiirtemberg and the Duke of Zwei- 
briicken, or Deux-Ponts. 

Although government in the larger states of Germany was adminis- 
tered on enlightened principles towards the close of the 18th century, 
the government of the smaller principalities was generally oppressive. 

In spite of its unfavorable political condition, Germany during the 18th 
century began to recover from the effects of the Thirty Years' War ; 
material improvement ; intellectual development ; increase in the num- 
ber and efficiency of German universities ; foundation of the Univer- 
sity of Gottingen (1734); German literature ; the Court of Weimar. 

Distant prospect in the 18th century of German unity ; Frederick the 
Great, the national hero ; distrust of the schemes of Joseph II.; admira- 
tion felt for the Prussian system of government ; Germany hampered in 
its development by the existence of the Holy Roman Empire and the 
ideas of the Treaties of Westphalia. 

Authorities : Many of the books cited under Lectures 45 and 47 describe the 
attitude of Frederick the Great and Joseph II. towards the Empire. A bright and 
concise account of the political and social condition of Germany on the eve of the 
French Revolution is given in Rambaud, Les Francais sur le Rhin. For the con- 
dition of the Empire during the 18th century see Putter, Historical Development 
of the Political Constitution of the Germanic Empire, translated by Dornford. 
Among the general works on Germany may be noted Biedermann, Deutschlands 
politische, materielle, und sociale Zustaude im iS ten Jahrhundert ; Haiisser, 
Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen bis zur Griindung des 
deutschen Bundes ; Heigel, Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen 
bis zur Auflosung des alten Reichs ; Perthes, Politische Zustaude und Person en in 



The Enlightened Despots. 153 

Deutschland zur Zeit der franzosischen Herrschaft, and Geismdr, Die politisclie 
Diteratur der Deutschen im iS ten Jahrhundert ; among books on individual German 
states, see Philippson, Geschichte des preussischen Staatswesens vom Tode Fried- 
richs des Grossen bis zu der Freiheitskriege ; Cassel, Friedrich Wilhelm II. ; 3fas- 
senbach, Memoiren ; Voss, Neunundsechzig Jahre am preussischen Hofe ; JMirabeau, 
Histoire secrete de la cour de Berlin ; Haicsser, Uber die Regierung Karl Friedrichs 
von Baden ; Kleinschmidt, Karl Friedrich von Baden; Erdmannsdorffer, Politisclie 
Korrespondenz Karl Friedrichs von Baden ; Charles Frederick of Baden, Brieflicher 
Verkehr mit Mirabeau und Dupont, ed. Knies ; Hailsser, Geschichte des rhein- 
ischen Pfalz. ; Strippelmann, Beitrage zur Geschichte Hessen- Cassel s ; Normann- 
Ehrenfels, Konigliche Wiirttemburgischer Staatsminister, 1756-1817, Denkwiirdig- 
keiten, ed. Roth von Schreckenstein ; Schreiber, Geschichte Baierns, and Count 
Rumford, Memoirs. 



LECTURE 51. 



THE ENLIGHTENED DESPOTS. 

The most characteristic feature in government of the 18th century 
was the existence and the work of the Enlightened Despots ; though 
differing in the degrees of their enlightenment, these rulers showed a 
common tendency to use their authority for the good of their people. 

The three most important enlightened despots, not because they were 
most enlightened, but because of their political power, were the Em- 
peror Joseph II., the Tsaritsa Catherine II. and Frederick the Great; 
their example had much to do with changing the conception of the 
duties of monarchy in Europe, but they did not originate the move- 
ment, and were its most illustrious rather than its most thoroughgoing 
representatives. 

Some of the enlightened despots, like the three rulers above mentioned, 
carried on the work of government themselves ; others, like Joseph of 
Portugal, Charles III. of Spain and Christian VII. of Denmark, showed 
their sympathy with the spirit of the times by supporting enlightened 
ministers, like Pombal, Tanucci, Aranda and Bernstorff. 

The origin of the conception of enlightened despotism is to be found 



154 The Enlightened Despots. 

in the works of the political philosphers, political economists and 
jurists of the century. 

The enlightened despots and their ministers were very sensitive to 
the criticism of the men of letters of their time, and European public 
opinion had much to do with initiating and encouraging schemes of 
internal reform ; the chief leaders of the intellectual movement in Eu- 
rope during the century were Frenchmen, and it was to French writers 
who were practically unable to influence their own country that foreign 
monarchs looked for advice and applause. 

In the 1 7th century there was a general movement towards giving 
autocratic power or despotism to monarchs because they best realized 
the State with its ideals of internal peace and national independence or 
aggression ; in the 18th century autocratic government sought to justify 
its further existence on the ground that it could do more good for the 
people than any other system. 

The following points are common to all the enlightened despots or 
enlightened ministers of the 18th century : (1) their belief that autoc- 
racy logically implied extreme centralization ; (2) their indifference to 
racial, national or local characteristics, looking on their subjects as 
people to be governed according to system for their own good w T hether 
they liked it or not ; (3) their disregard of class distinctions, which led 
them to select servants from the most suitable persons and finally de- 
stroyed the political power of the aristocracies of the Continent ; (4) 
their freedom from religious intolerance, most of them being sceptics 
and regarding religion from an impersonal standpoint. 

The enlightened despots and ministers paid special attention to the 
following subjects ; some of them distinguished themselves more in one 
line than another ; but their claim to be enlightened rests upon their 
zeal in more than one of the following particulars : 

(1) Attempts to soften or abolish serfdom and other feudal abuses : 
in this line Joseph II. was the most thoroughgoing of the enlightened 
despots, but before his time Pombal abolished slavery in Portugal (25 
May, 1773) and Tanucci deprived the nobility of Naples of their feudal 
power, while afterwards Charles Frederick, Margrave of Baden, abolished 
serfdom in his dominions (23 July, 1783), and Andrew Bernstorff did the 
same thing in Denmark (20 June, 1788). 



The Enlightened Despots. 155 

(2) Projects of legal and judicial reform : promulgation of codes of 
law, in which work Frederick the Great of Prussia, the Grand Duke 
Leopold of Tuscany, Maximilian Joseph of Bavaria, and Frederick Au- 
gustus, Elector of Saxony, were especially distinguished ; reforms in 
judicial administration by the abolition of torture and the introduction 
of more humane methods of punishment ; improvement in this respect 
was shown in the work of all the enlightened despots, owing chiefly to 
the influence of Voltaire and Beccaria ; effect of the publication of 
Beccaria's Dei delitti e delta pene (1764), Montesquieu's Esprit des lois 
(1748), and Filangieri's Scienza delta legislazione (1780). 

(3) Efforts to promote material prosperity by the undertaking of 
public works, such as draining marshes, making roads and improving 
harbors : in these directions Frederick the Great, Catherine II. in 
Russia, Aranda and Florida Blanca in Spain, Pope Pius VI. and Vic- 
tor Amadeus III., King of Sardinia, did the most. 

(4) Adoption of the ideas of the political economists in collecting 
their revenues and encouraging manufactures and commerce : some of 
the enlightened despots were themselves distinguished members of the 
Physiocratic school, like Charles Frederick, Margrave of Baden, and 
the Grand Duke Leopold of Tuscany, while the Emperor Joseph II. in 
Austria, Gustavus III. in Sweden, Pombal in Portugal, Campomaues 
and Jovellanos in Spain, and the Bernstorffs in Denmark, were partisans 
of the new school of political economy. 

(5) Encouragement of education, and especially of higher education: 
all the enlightened despots established academies of literature, science 
and art in their capitals, and encouraged learned men; many univer- 
sities were established or reorganized, notably in Italy, Germany, Den- 
mark and Portugal ; systems of national primary education were at- 
tempted hy Frederick the Great, Charles Frederick, Margrave of Baden, 
and Campomanes in Spain. 

(6) Freedom of the press established, for instance, by Struensee in 
Denmark (1770), Gustavus III. in Sweden (1784), and by the Emperor 
Joseph II. (1783), but their example was not universally followed, 
though the power of the censorship was everywhere diminished. 

(7) Extension of ideas of religious toleration, embracing not only the 
different forms of Christianity, but also Judaism : the Emperor Joseph 



156 The E?ilighteiied Despots. 

II., and Bernstorff in Denmark, specifically abolished the disabilities oi 
the Jews ; Frederick the Great showed himself tolerant to all varieties 
of Christians ; but the most famous declarations of toleration, permitting 
both liberty of thought and liberty of worship, were issued by Cath- 
erine II. in her instruction for the making of a new code (1766), which 
even permitted the Muhammadans to build mosques, and by Joseph II. 
in his Edict of Toleration (13 Oct., 1781). 

(8) Deliberate steps taken to diminish the wealth and power of the 
Church in Roman Catholic states : illustrated by the combined attack 
upon the Jesuits, and by the suppression of the Inquisition in Parma 
(1768), in Lombardy (1775), in Tuscany (1782), in Sicily (1782), and its 
modification in Portugal (1769), and by the measures taken for reducing 
the number of bishops and monks, by the Emperor Joseph II., the Grand 
Duke Leopold of Tuscany, Tanucci, and the Elector Charles Theodore 
of Bavaria. 

The essential weakness of the enlightened despots was their attempt 
to do everything without considering whether the people were prepared 
for reform ; further, there could be no guarantee for the continuance of 
their work. 

Great services rendered by the enlightened despots of the 18th cen- 
tury to the cause of civilization and progress in Europe. 

Authorities : There exists no single book devoted to the history and the work 
of the enlightened despots of the iSth century in Europe, but reference may be 
made to Morse Stephens, European History, 1789-1815, chapter i., for a brief 
sketch of their position, and to So ret, L' Europe et la Revolution francaise, vol. i. 



LECTURE 52. 



LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY IN THE 18th CENTURY. 

Characteristics of iSth century literature : it is an age of polished 
prose rather than of poetry; dominated at first by severe classicism, it 
is later affected by sentimentalism, and ends with a return to simple 
naturalism. 



Literature in the 18th Century. 157 

Importance of 18th century literature : its influence on politics ; its 
effect on the enlightened despots ; its share in paving the way for the 
ideas of the French Revolution ; the epoch of patrons ; the position 
held by men of letters. 

Services rendered by iSth century literature in making known the 
discoveries of experimental science ; the Encyclopedic Methodique. 

French literature in the 18th century : decline of poetry ; the drama ; 
tragedy ; Voltaire (1694-1778); comedy; Marivaux (1688-1763); Cre- 
billon (1674-1762); dramatic criticism; Diderot; importance of the 
Freneh stage ; epic poetry; its decline : Voltaire's Henriade ; other 
poets; Gresset (1709-1777); prose writers; historians; Vertot (1655- 
1735), Voltaire, Rulhiere (1735-1791); fiction ; Lesage (1668-1747), 
Gil Bias; Prevost (1697-1763), Mano?i Le scant ; Bernardin de Saint- 
Pierre (1737-1814), Paul et Virginie ; theology; the preacher Massillon 
( 1663-1742); the chief French writers turned their attention to political, 
philosophical and social questions; Montesquieu (1689-1755), Esprit 
des lois ; Holbach (1723-1789); Helvetius (1715-1771); Raynal (1713- 
1796); Jean Jacques Rousseau (17 12-1778); his political philosophy, the 
Contrat Social ; his theory of education, Emile ; his sentimentality, the 
Nouvelle Heloise ; the Encyclopaedists ; Diderot (1 713-1784); D'Alem- 
bert (1717-1783); the typical man of letters of the 18th century, Voltaire ; 
his character, literary merits and influence. 

English literature in the 18th century : influence of classicism ; the 
Age of Anne ; Pope (1688-1744); Swift (1667-1745); Addison (1672- 
1719), Steele (1671-1729), and the Spectator; Bolingbroke (1678-1751); 
Defoe (1663-1731); the middle period of the century ; sentimentalism ; 
Sterne (1713-1768); Johnson (1 709-1 784), and his influence ; Goldsmith 
(1728-1774); poetry; Gray (1716-1771); return to nature ; Cowper(i73i- 
1800); Burns (1759-1796); fiction; Richardson ( 1743-18 14), Fielding 
(1707-1754), Smollett (1721-1771); history; Robertson (1721-1793); 
Hume(i7ii-i776); Gibbon (1737-1794); classical scholarship; Bent- 
ley (1662-1742); Porson (1759-1808). 

Italian literature in the 18th century: its decadence; influence of the 
academies; poets and play-wrights ; Metastasio (1698-1782); Goldoni 
(1707-1793); Gozzi (1713-1786); Parini (1729-99); Alfieri (1749-1803); 
prose writers; Beccaria (1 738-1 794); Filangieri (1752-1788); the study 
of history; Muratori (1672-1750); Giannone (1676-1748). 



158 Philosophy in the iSth Century. 

Spanish literature in the iSth century: Isla (1703-1781), Fray Ger- 

undio ; its revival under Charles III; the work of academies and liter- 
ary societies ; Campomanes (.1723-1802^; Jovellanos (1744-1S11). 

Portuguese literature in the iSth century : revival of Portuguese 
poetry: Nascimento (1734-1819). 

Danish literature in the iSth century: Holberg (1684-1754). 

German literature in the iSth century: its beginning and develop- 
ment ; the importance of Lessing (1729-17S1) as poet and critic; Klop- 
stock (1724-1803); Wieland (1733-1813); Herder (1 744-1 S03); German 
literature reaches its height with Schiller (1759-1S05) and Goethe 
(1749-1832); causes of the rise of German literature ; its significance; 
its characteristics; the Court of Weimar; the German universities; 
classical scholarship : Heyne (i729-iSr2), 

Relation of literature to philosophy iu the iSth century. 

Attitude of philosophical writers toward religion: the French school; 
Voltaire ; Rousseau ; D'Alembert ; Holbach ; Helvetius; the more rigid 
philosophical thinkers : Condillac (1715-1780); Condorcet (1743-1794); 
the English Deists; Bishop Butler (1692-1752) and the Analogy; the 
speculative philosophy of Berkeley (1684-1753); Hume (1711-1777); 
the German philosophers ; \V0lff\1679-1754\ the importance of Kant 
(1724-1804). 

The iSth century writers of political philosophy: influence of Locke 
and the English thinkers; importance of Montesquieu, Rousseau, and 
Voltaire: Beccaria and Filangieri ; the Abbe de Saint-Pierre ( 165S-1743). 

Political economy and its development in the iSth century: Ouesnay 
(1694-1774^; the Marquis de Mirabeau (1715-1789) ; Adam Smith 
(1 723-1790) and the publication of the Wealth of Nations (1776). 

Characteristic features of the literary and philosophical movements 
of the iSth centurv. 



LECTURE 53. 



ART AND SCIENCE IN THE ISth CENTURY. 
The tendency noticed in the 17th century towards the decadence of 
art, under the influence of conventionality and sentimentalism, increases 



Art in the 18th Century. 159 

in the 18th century, while the development of experimental science led 
to startling discoveries and their application. 

Decline of art in the 18th century : its causes ; extended study of the 
theory of art ; Diderot (1713-1784); Reynolds (1723-1792); improve- 
ment of education in art ; importance of Rome in this respect ; revival 
of the study of ancient Greek art ; Winckelmann (17 17-1768); develop- 
ment of the arts of engraving and etching; general diffusion of know- 
ledge of the great works of art; royal and noble patronage of art ; the 
formation of the great galleries of Europe; Diisseldorf, Dresden; dilet- 
tantism. 

The Italian school of painting: the Roman school; Battoni (1708- 
1787); Raphael Mengs (1728-1779), though German by birth, belonged 
to this school ; the Venetian school : Canaletto the elder (1697-1768); 
Canaletto the younger (1724-1780); Guardi (1712-1793). 

The French school of painting : its representatives in the 18th cen- 
tury ; Boucher (1703-1770), and classicism ; Watteau (1684-1721), and 
graceful conventionality; Greuze (1 726-1 805), and sentimentalism ; new 
ideas introduced by David (1 748-1 825); his greatness as a draughts- 
man ; his influence on the French school of art. 

The English school of painting : Hogarth (1697-1764); his merits 
and faults ; foundation of the Royal Academy (1768); the great English 
portrait painters; Reynolds (1723-1792); Gainsborough (1727-1788); 
Romney (1734- 1802). 

Sculpture : the one great sculptor of the 18th century; Canova (1757- 
1822); his unique position. 

Effect of the increased study of Greek and Roman art : the excava- 
tions at Herculaneum and Pompeii ; the antiquarians ; the Clementine 
Museum ; Visconti the elder (1722-1784); the great collections of gems 
and of classical antiquities. 

Architecture: it continued at first to be dominated by 17th century 
ideals and pseudo-classicism ; imitations of Versailles in Germany and 
elsewhere; influence of more correct knowledge of classical architecture; 
Salvi (1699-1751) and Fuga (1699-1780) in Italy; Blondel (1705-1774) 
and Chalgrin (1789-1811) in France; James Stuart (1713-1788) and 
Robert Adam (1728-1792) in England. 

Gardening: reaction from the classical style of Le Notre and from the 



160 Music in the 18th Century. 

formal Dutch garden; cultivation of natural beauty; introduction of 
landscape gardening; the " English garden" ; Kent (1684-1748); "Ca- 
pability " Brown (1715-1783). 

Music in the 18th century: while the graphic arts decline in origi- 
nality and vitality, music with improvement of musical instruments, 
the growth of the orchestra, and the better understanding of its theory 
and principles, became the most original and characteristic expression 
of 1 8th century civilization; importance of music as a civilizing agent ; 
immense popularity of the opera ; Italy was the home of the opera, 
which absorbed all minds there ; the opera in France, Austria, Eng- 
land; invention and growth of the oratorio in England; development 
of German music; harmony; the age of the great masters, culminating 
in Beethoven (1770-1827). 

Music in Italy: development of the opera, the mass and the song; 
melody; the great singers of the 18th century; Farinelli (1705-17S2); 
Caffarelli (1758-1826); the composers of the Neapolitan school; Eeo 
(1694-1742); Piccini (1728-1800); Paisiello (1741-1816); Cimarosa 
(1749-1801); the Venetian school; the teaching of singing ; Porpora 
(1687-1767). 

Music in France: Rameau (1683-1764); the opera in France; the 
rivalry between Gluck and Piccini ; cultivation of musical taste in 
France in the direction of theatrical music; Gretry (1741-1813); Mehul 
(1763-1817). 

Music in England : the opera ; rivalry between Handel and Bonon- 
cini ; the greatness of Handel (1684-1759); development of the oratorio; 
church music in England. 

Music in Germany: the first great master, Johann Sebastian Bach 
(1685-1750); the opera in Germany; Gluck (1714-1787); Mozart (1756- 
1791); Mozart and his influence on the development of music; his 
operas and masses ; his orchestral compositions ; music and its head- 
quarters at Vienna ; Haydn (1732-1809); importance of music in Ger- 
man civilization. 

Popularity of experimental science in the 18th century : men of 
science occupied with the application and extension of the scientific 
knowledge and of the discoveries made in the 17th century; application 
of science to industrial development. 



Science in the 18th Century. 161 

The great mathematicians : Kuler (1707-1783); De Moivre (1667- 
1754) ; D'Alembert (1717-1783) ; Lagrange (1736-1813) : Laplace 
(1749-1827); the Micanique celeste; Monge (1746-1818) and descrip- 
tive geometry. 

The great biologists: Morgagni (1682-1771) and anatomy; Spallan- 
zani (1719-1799) and his discoveries on the nature of blood; introduc- 
tion of vaccination; Jenner (1 749-1 823). 

The great naturalists: Buffon (1707-1788); Daubenton (1716-1800); 
Lacepede (1756-1825); Lamarck (1744-1829). 

The great botanists : Linnaeus (1707-1778) and his classification of 
plants; Jussieu (1747-1836) and the natural order. 

The great mineralogists and geologists : Werner (1750-18 17); Haiiy 
(1743-1822) the founder of mineralogy; Dolomieu (1750-1801). 

The great astronomers : Clairaut (17 13-1765) ; Maupertuis (1698- 
1756); Bradley (1692-1762); Herschel (1738-1822) and the discovery 
of Uranus; Lalande (1732-1807); Bailly (1736-1793) and the history of 
astronomy. 

The great physicists : influence of Newton (1642-1727); Franklin 
(1706-1790) and electricity; Volta (1745-1827) and the voltaic pile; 
Galvani (1737-1798) and galvanism ; Reaumur (1683-1757) and the 
improvements in the thermometer; Fontana (1730-1803); influence of 
the discoveries of Priestley and Lavoisier on physics. 

The great chemists: Cavendish (1731-1810); Lavoisier (1 743-1 794) 
and Priestley (1733-1805), and the resolution of air and water into their 
component parts ; Berthollet (1 748-1 822); Scheele (1 742-1 786). 

The first balloons (1783); Etienne Montgolfier (1 740-1 799); Joseph 
Montgolfier (1745-1810); Pilatre de Rozier (1756-1785). 

Application of scientific discoveries : Watt (1736-18 19), and the 
steam engine ; Boulton (1728-1809); Hargreaves (d. 1770), Arkwright 
(1732-1792), Crompton (1753-1827) and Cartwright (1743-1823) and 
the development of textile industry. 

Improvements in civil engineering: extension of canals ; the Duke 
of Bridgewater (1736-1803) and Brindley (1716-1772) in England; the 
Ladoga canal in Russia; Munuich (1683-1767); other canals; drain- 
ing of marshes; harbour improvements; lighthouses; Smeaton (1724- 
1792); foundation of the Ecole des ponts et chaussees (1747); the work of 
Perronet (1 708-1794). 



1 62 The French Revolution. 

The practical character of the 18th century is to be seen in its appli- 
cation of science to human needs. 



LECTURE 54. 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 

The elections to the States-General : Mounier (b. 1758, d. 1806) and 
Sieyes (b. 1748, d. 1836); " the revolt of the cures" ; the cahiers. 

Meeting of the States-General (5 May, 1789): the struggle between 
the Orders ; the States- General declared to be the National Assembly 
(17 June); the Oath of the Tennis Court (20 June); the siance royale 
(23 June); Mirabeau (b. 1749); concentration of troops around Paris; 
capture of the Bastille (14 July); visit of Louis XVI to Paris (17 July); 
Bailly (b. 1736, d. 1793) appointed Mayor and La Fayette (b. 1757, d. 
1834) Commander of the National Guard of Paris. 

Anarchy in France : breakdown of the administrative S3 r stem ; the 
" great fear "; restoration of order by local effort. 

The Constituent Assembly at Versailles : the Declaration of the 
Rights of Man ; the night of 4 August ; the questions of royal veto on 
legislation and of one or two houses in the legislature ; approach of 
national bankruptcy ; Necker and Mirabeau. 

The King and royal family brought to Paris (6 Oct., 1789), followed 
by the Assembly ; character and policy of La Fayette. 

The work of the Constituent Assembly : the Constitution of 1791 ; 
division of France into departments ; establishment of elective local 
government; abolition of the old law courts, and creation of a new 
judicial system ; the civil constitution of the clergy and its results; 
the mania for election ; weakening of the central executive authority ; 
abolition of the relics of feudalism ; the financial situation and its re- 
sults ; first issue of assignats. 

Political history of the Constituent Assembly : effective authority 
passes from the King to the Assembly ; its refusal to undertake openly 
the responsibility of executive government; decree of 7 Nov., 1789; 
disorganization of the civil administration, of the army and the navy ; 



The French Revolution, 163 

repression of the military mutiny at Nancy by Bouille (31 Aug., 1790); 
the advice to the Court and the plans of Mirabeau ; death of Mirabeau 
(2 Apr., 1791); nature of the opposition to the Revolution ; attitude of 
the Court ; attitude of the Church ; the emigres ; enthusiasm of the 
people for the Revolution ; the Federation of 14 July, 1790. 

The foreign policy of the Constituent Assembly : the debate on the 
declaration of peace and war (May, 1790); danger of foreign war; 
Mirabeau, reporter of the Diplomatic Committee ; the three questions 
which gave rise to foreign complications : (1) the affair of Avignon ; 
(2) the affair of Nootka Sound, involving the maintenance of the Pacte 
de Famille ; (3) interference with the rights of the Princes of the Em- 
pire in Alsace. 

Endeavors of Mirabeau to avoid foreign war ; the Queen, Marie An- 
toinette, looked to her brother, the Emperor Leopold II, for help ; the 
people believed the Court desirous of suppressing the Revolution by 
calling in foreign aid. 

The flight to Varennes (21 June, 1791): its effect ; definite and open 
breach between the King and the Revolution ; the massacre of the 
Champ de Mars (17 July, 1791); the Manifesto of Padua issued by the 
Emperor Leopold (6 July); the Declaration of Pilnitz, signed by the 
Emperor Leopold and Frederick William II. of Prussia, threatening 
France (27 Aug.); the Constitution of 1791 accepted by Louis XVI.; 
dissolution of the Constituent Assembly (21 Sept.). 

Growth of public opinion : means of influencing it ; importance of 
the newspaper press ; the journalists ; Marat (b. 1744, d. 1793), Camille 
Desmoulins (b. 1762, d. 1794), and Loustalot (b. 1762, d. 1790); im- 
portance of the clubs ; the Jacobin Club ; the Cordeliers Club ; the 
provincial clubs. 

The Municipality or Commune of Paris. 

The Legislative Assembly : influence of the Girondin orators ; their 
war policy; Brissot (b. 1754, d. 1793); their decrees against the emigres; 
Louis XVL's demands of the Rhenish Electors ; French armies raised 
and directed to the frontier under Rochambeau, La Fayette and Liick- 
ner ; debates on the expediency of war with Austria in the Legislative 
Assembly and in the Jacobin Club ; declared opposition to the alliance 
with Austria ; attitude of the Emperor Leopold ; his death ( 1 March 



164 The French Revolution, 

1792); war declared by France against Austria (20 Apr., 1792); the 
policy of Dumouriez (b. 1739, d. 1823); position of Louis XVI. and 
Marie Antoinette. 

Europe and the French Revolution : contemptuous views originally 
held by foreign rulers who believed that the Revolution would destroy 
the position of France among the nations ; apprehension felt, as time 
went on, in the states bordering on France of the contagion of demo- 
cratic principles ; admiration at first felt in England for the French 
Revolution ; effect of Burke's writings ; attitude towards the French 
Revolution of the Tsaritsa Catherine, Frederick William II. of Prussia, 
and Gustavus III. of Sweden. 

Effect of the outbreak of war en the development and internal his- 
tory of the French Revolution. 

Authorities : The best small hooks on the French Revolution are Mignet, 
Ilistoire de la Revolution francaise, translated into English ; Carnot, La Revolu- 
tion francaise ; and B. M. Gardiner, The French Revolution ; Morse Stephens, 
Europe, 1789-1815, lays special weight on the European relations of the Revolu- 
tion. Among secondary histories, Carlyte, The French Revolution, is a prose 
epic but not a trustworthy history ; MicheleVs history is likewise rather a rhapsody 
than a history ; Louis Blanc and Thiers are out of date ; Taine, La Revolution, is 
able and interesting, but prejudiced ; Morse Stephens, History of the French Revo- 
lution, vol. 1 (1789-91), vol. 2 (1791-1793) is an attempt to summarize the latest 
authorities. Among secondary works of a special character may be noted ; for 
the elections to the States- General, Chassin, Le genie de la Revolution; for the 
cahiers, Champion, La France de 1789 d' apres les cahiers ; for Mirabeau, Lomenie, 
Les Mirabeau, 5 vols., Mezieres,Vie de Mirabeau, and Stem, DasLeben Mirabeaus ; 
for the financial history, Stourm, Les finances de l'Ancien Regime et de la Revolu- 
tion ; for the ecclesiastical history, Sciout, Histoire de la constitution civile du 
clerge ; for the army, Duruy, L'arm^e royale en 1789, lung, Dubois-Crance\ and 
Maire, Histoire de l'affaire de Nancy ; for the flight to Varennes, Fournel, 
L'evenement de Varennes, and Browning,The Flight to Varennes ; and for a careful 
and modern sketch of the statesmen of the period, Aulard, Les Orateurs de 
l'Assemblee Constituante, and Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention. 
Numerous volumes on the Revolution in the provinces have been published, among 
which may be noted Seilhac, Scenes et portraits de la Revolution en Bas-Limousin, 
Desmasures, Histoire de la Revolution dans le department de l'Aisne, Bouvier, Les 
Vosges pendant la Revolution, Lecesne, Arras sous la Revolution, Babeau, Troyes 
pendant la Revolution, and the numerous volumes on Auvergne published by 
Mege. Upon the foreign policy of the Revolution and the relations of Revolu- 



The French Revolution. 165 

tionary France with Europe all earlier books have been superseded by Sorel, 
L'Europe et la Revolution francaise ; but reference may also be made to Sybel. 
Geschichte der Revolutionszeit von 1789 bis 1800, 5 vols., of which the first 3 vols, 
have been translated into English by Perry. With regard to primary authori- 
ties, notice must first be taken of such contemporary histories as Rabaut Saint- 
Elienne, Precis historique de la Revolution francaise, Lameth, Histoire de l'Assem- 
blee constituante, "Deux Amis", Histoire de la Revolution francaise, and of the 
files of contemporary newspapers, especially the Moniteur, of which a reprint 
was published in 1850. Many valuable collections of documents, very carefully 
edited, have recently been published at the expense of the French government, of 
the municipality of Paris, etc., among which should be noted the Archives Par- 
lementaires ed. Mavidal and Laurent ; Recueil des actes relatifs a la convocation 
des Etats Generaux de 1789, ed. Brette ; Assemblee electorale de Paris, ed. Chara- 
vay ; Les elections et les cahiers de Paris en 1789, ed. Chassin, and La Societe des 
Jacobins, ed. Aulard. Many documents of value have likewise been published by 
the Societe de V 'histoire de la Revolution frangaise, and by the Societe d' histoire 
contemporaine , and have appeared in the special periodicals devoted to Revolu- 
tionary History, namely the Revue de la Revolution, which came to an end in 1889, 
and the Revolution Frangaise, ed. Aulard, which is still in course of publication. 
Numerous memoirs have been published in the collections edited by Berville and 
Barriere, and by Barriere and Lescure, among which may be specially noted those 
of Bailly, Bouille, Ferrieres, Brissot and Weber; not published in these collec- 
tions may be noted the Memoires of Malouet, Mallet du Pan, Beugnot and Bertrand 
de Moleville. Of primary importance for Mirabeau's policy U his Correspondance 
avec La Marck, ed. Bacourt. Mirabeau's most important speeches have been pub- 
lished in Morse Stephens, Orators of the French Revolution. 

For the attitude of foreign countries towards the French Revolution, see in addi- 
tion to Sorel, Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France ; Mackintosh, Vin- 
dicise Gallicas ; Romilly, Memoirs; Gower, Despatches from Paris 1790-92, e<L 
Browning; Jefferson, Writings, ed Ford, and Memoir, Correspondence and Mis- 
cellanies, ed. Randolph; Gouverncur Morris, Memorial, and Diary and Letters ; 
Geffroy, Gustave HI. et la cour de France, and Lariviere, Catherine II. et la Revo- 
lution francaise. 

LECTURE 55. 



THE BELGIAN REVOLUTION, AND THE POLICY OF THE 
EMPEROR LEOPOLD II. 

The extent of insurrectionary feeling in the Austrian dominions in 
1789 : contrast between the popular movements in the Austrian do- 
minions and in France ; causes of this contrast. 



1 66 The Belgian Revolution. 

The opposition to the policy of Joseph II. reached its height in the 
Austrian Netherlands. 

The Belgian Revolution of 1789 : Maria Theresa's government of the 
Austrian Netherlands ; the administrations of Charles of Lorraine 
(1744-81) and of the Archduchess Maria Christina (1781-93); Joseph's 
policy in the Austrian Netherlands; he enraged the Belgians, (1) by 
his political measures infringing their local liberties and rights of local 
self-government ; (2) by his religious policy and attempts to introduce 
secular education ; the clerical opposition led by Cardinal Frankenberg, 
Archbishop of Malines ; stern suppression of riots in the Belgian cities ; 
Joseph abolished the constitution of Hainault (31 Jan., 1789), and of 
Brabant (18 June, 1789); the Belgian exiles, encouraged by the Triple 
Alliance, raised an army at Breda. 

The army of Belgian patriots under Van der Mersch crossed the fron- 
tier (23 Oct.): general insurrection; evacuation of Brussels (12 Dec), 
and abandonment of the Catholic Netherlands by the Austrian troops ; 
meeting of a general convention at Brussels ; constitution promulgated 
for the Belgian Republic (10 Jan., 1790); formation of the United 
States of Belgium ; influence of Van der Noot (b. 1735, d. 1827); in- 
dependence declared; death of the Emperor Joseph (20 Feb., 1790). 

The two parties in Belgium— the Van der Nootists or Statists, and 
the Vonckists or Democrats : the Statists persecuted the Democrats, 
and drove their leaders from the country ; jealousy felt of Van der 
Noot ; the Emperor Leopold offered to restore the government of the 
Austrian Netherlands as it had existed under Maria Theresa ; the offer 
rejected by the Belgian leaders ; the country entirely re-occupied by the 
Austrians without a blow (Nov.-Dec, 1790). 

Comparison of the Belgian with the French Revolution. 

The Revolution in Liege : the people of Liege rose in insurrection 
and expelled the Prince-Bishop (16-18 Aug., 1789) ; the Prussians 
restored the authority of the Bishop (Nov., 1789); the Austrians eventu- 
ally occupied Liege, at the request of the princes of the neighboring 
Circle, and restored the Bishop (13 Jan., 1791). 

The Emperor Leopold II (b. 1747): condition of Austrian affairs at the 
time of his accession (20 Feb., 1790); his character and previous career 
as Grand Duke of Tuscany ; succeeded in Tuscany by his second son, 
the Archduke Ferdinand. 



Policy of the Emperor Leopold II. 167 

Internal policy of Leopold : his concessions to the insurgents and 
malcontents in the different provinces of the House of Hapsburg ; he 
gave up Joseph's schemes of unification and restored local government 
and liberties to provinces not in open insurrection ; he maintained 
Joseph's edict of religious toleration and many other reforms, and 
quieted the fear among the people of further innovations. 

Leopold's foreign policy : first period ; he determined to make peace 
with the Turks and to frustrate the schemes of Prussia by breaking up 
the Triple Alliance ; the relations between Prussia and Poland ; the 
Treaty of 29 March, 1790, by which the Poles agreed to cede Thorn 
and Dantzig to Prussia in exchange for the retrocession of Austrian 
Galicia ; Leopold convinced England and the Dutch that he would 
hand over the Austrian Netherlands to France if they supported Prus- 
sia in its schemes against Austria ; the Prussians concentrated an army 
in Silesia and Leopold an army in Bohemia ; the Conference of Reich- 
enbach (June, 1790); hy the Convention of Reichenbach (27 July), 
Austria engaged to make peace with the Turks, the Triple Alliance 
guaranteed the restoration of Austrian authority in the Netherlands, 
and Prussia promised to withdraw its support from the malcontents in 
Hungary and Belgium, and to support Leopold's candidature for the 
imperial throne ; great diplomatic victory thus won by Leopold ; dis- 
missal of Hertzberg from the Prussian foreign office. 

Leopold and the Turks : the Armistice of Giurgevo (19 Sept., 1790); 
by the Treaty of Sistova (4 Aug., 1791) Austria obtained from the 
Turks Old Orsova and part of Croatia. 

Leopold and the Hungarians : the position in Hungary consequent 
on the measures taken by Joseph ; the Magyar nobles assumed semi- 
independence, and sent envoys to Reichenbach ; Leopold marched an 
army to Pesth ; he refused to grant semi-independence to Hungary and 
appointed his fourth son, Alexander Leopold, to be Palatine of Hun- 
gary (12 Nov., 1790); submission of the Magyars; Leopold crowned 
King of Hungary (15 Nov.); concessions made to the national pride 
of the Magyars. 

Leopold and the Empire: crowned Emperor (9 Oct., 1790); his steps 
to win back the leadership of the German princes, which Prussia had 
secured by the formation of the Fiirstenbund in 1785; he availed him- 



i68 Policy of the Emperor Leopold II. 

self of the opportunity afforded by the disgust of the German princes 
at the measures taken by the French Constituent Assembly with re- 
gard to the rights of the Princes of the Empire in Alsace. 

Position of Leopold in 1791 : success of his diplomacy ; he had re- 
stored Austria to the position she had lost under Joseph II. ; he had won 
the support of the Triple Alliance ; his attitude towards France. 

Leopold's foreign policy: second period; his sister Marie Antoinette 
appealed to him for armed help ; Leopold's dislike for war ; the Mani- 
festo of Padua (6 July, 1791); Leopold desired to maintain the power of 
Louis XVI. because the Franco-Austrian alliance depended upon it ; he 
persuaded the King of Prussia to issue the Declaration of Pilnitz with 
him (27 Aug., 1 791); he protested, as Emperor, against the violation 
of the rights of the Princes of the Empire in Alsace (3 Dec.) and de- 
fended the Rhenish princes for sheltering French emigres (14 Dec); in 
this position he was heartily supported by the Diet of the Empire ; sig- 
nature of an offensive and defensive alliance with Frederick William II. 
of Prussia (7 Feb., 1792); death of Leopold (1 March). 

Assassination of Gustavus III. of Sweden (29 March, 1792); his brother 
Charles, Duke of Sudermania, regent during the minority of Gusta- 
vus IV., pursued a neutral policy. 

Parties at the Court of Prussia : Frederick William II. determined to 
adhere to the alliance with Austria, and after the death of Leopold 
became the leader of the alliance. 

Francis II., eldest son of Leopold, crowned Emperor (14 July, 1792): 
the last Holy Roman Emperor. 

Victor Amadeus III., King of Sardinia, entered into an alliance with 
Austria against France (July, 1792). 

Conditions under which the war with France commenced. 

Authorities : On Belgium in the 18th century and the Belgian Revolution, see 
Juste, Histoire de la Belgique ; Discailles, Les Pays-Bas sous le regne de Marie 
Therese ; Plot, Le regne de Marie Therese dans les Pays-Bas autrichiens ; Borg- 
net, Histoire des Beiges a. la fin du XVIIIieme siecle ; Gachard, Etudes sur l'histoire 
des Pays-Bas, and Documents sur la revolution beige de 1790 ; Poullet, Mdmoire 
sur l'ancienne constitution brabanconne ; A. Wolf, Maria Christina, Erzherzogin 
von CEsterreich, and Leopold II. und Maria Christina, ihr Briefwechsel ; Magnette, 
Joseph II. et la liberte" de l'Escaut, 1781-85 ; Dclplace, Joseph II. et la revolution 
brabanconne; Juste, La revolution brabanconne, Les Vonckistes, La republique 



The War of the French Revolution. 169 

beige, and Le comte de Mercy-Argenteau et l'abandon de la Belgique ; Verhagen, 
Le cardinal de Frankenberg; Theiner, Jean-Henri, comte de Frankenberg, car- 
dinal-archeveque de Malines et sa lutte pour la liberte de l'Eglise ; Lorenz, Kaiser 
Joseph II. und die Belgische Revolution, nacb den Papieren des Grafen Murray, in 
bis Drei Biicher Geschichte und Politik ; Zeissberg, Zwei Jahre Belgischer Ge- 
schichte (in the Sitzuagsberichte des kaiserlichen Akademie fiir Wissenschaft, 1891 ) ; 
Arneth and Flammermont, Correspon dance secrete du Comte de Mercy-Argenteau 
avec l'empereur Joseph II. et le prince de Kaunitz ; Discailles, Le general Van der 
Mersch avant la revolution brabanconne, and Alexandre de Bronx ; "Galesloot, 
Chronique des ev£nements les plus remarquables arrives a Bruxelles (i78o-]827); 
Gerard, Rapedius de Berg, memoires et documents pour servir a. l'histoire de la 
revolution brabanconne ; Van de Spiegel, Zijne Tijdgenooten, ed. Vreede, and Staes, 
De Belgische Republiek van 1790. On the revolution in Liege, see Borgnet, His- 
toire de la revolution liegeoise de 1789 ; C. IV. von Dohm, Die Liitticher Revolu- 
tion von 1789, and Cheslret, Papiers de Jean Remi de Chestret pour servir a, l'his- 
toire de la revolution liegeoise. For the policy of Leopold, see Schets, Geschichte 
CBsterreichs unter der Regierung Leopolds II.; Zeissberg, Kaiser Leopold II. (in 
Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie); Sorel, L'Europe et la Revolution francaise ; 
Von Sybel, Geschichte der Revolutionszeit ; Vivenot, Ouellen zur Geschichte der 
deutschen Kaiserpolitik Gjsterreichs wahrend der Franzosischen Revolutions- 
kriege ; Hiiffer, Diplomatische Verhandlungen aus der Zeit der Franzosischen 
Revolution; Beer, Joseph II., Leopold II. und Kaunitz, and Leopold II., Franz 
II. und Catharina, ihre Correspondenz, nebst einer Einleituug zur Geschichte der 
Politik Leopolds II. ; Vivenot, Die Politik des cesterreichischen Staatskanzlers 
Fiirsten Kaunitz-Rietberg unter Kaiser Leopold II., and Creux, Pitt et Frederic 
Guillaume II., l'Angleterre et la Prusse devant la question d'Orienten 1790 et 1791. 



LECTURE 56. 



THE WAR OF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC AGAINST EUROPE. 

French reverses at the commencement of the war : the invasion of 
the Tuileries (20 June, 1792); the proclamation of the Duke of Bruns- 
wick ; the plan of campaign ; the Austrians invaded French Flanders, 
and the Prussians, Lorraine and Champagne ; rapid advance of the in- 
vaders ; excitement in Paris ; general belief in France that the Court 
sympathized with the invaders ; capture of the Tuileries and suspen- 
sion of the King (10 Aug.) ; summons of a National Convention. 



170 The War of the French Revolution. 

Desperate efforts made for the defense of France : the work of Dan- 
ton (b. 1759, d. 1794) and of Vergniaud (b. 1759, d. 1793); desertion of 
La Fayette (20 Aug.); capture of Verdun by the Prussians (2 Sept.); 
the massacres in the prisons of Paris (2-6 Sept.); the Prussians re- 
pulsed by Dumouriez at Valmy (20 Sept.); retreat of the Duke of 
Brunswick ; gallant defense of L,ille. 

Meeting of the National Convention (20 Sept., 1792); declaration of 
the French Republic ; parties in the Convention ; the Girondins and 
the Mountain ; the Marsh or Plain ; Louvet's attack on Robespierre 
(29 Oct.) and Robespierre's reply (5 Nov.). 

Successes of the French armies : attack made upon the King of Sar- 
dinia ; Montesquiou occupied Savoy, and Anselme, Nice (Sept., 1792) ; 
Custine invaded Germany and took Spires (1 Oct.), Worms (4 Oct.) 
and Mayence (21 Oct.) ; Dumouriez invaded the Austrian Nether- 
lands, defeated the Austrians at Jemappes (6 Nov.), and occupied the 
whole of Belgium and Liege ; excitement and delight caused in 
France by these successes ; the Revolutionary Propaganda ; decree of 
19 November ; Savoy declared annexed to the French Republic (27 
Nov.), and Belgium (15 Dec). 

The debates in the Convention ; trial of Louis XVI. ; his execution 
(21 Jan., 1793). 

Dumouriez's plan for conquering the United Provinces : France de- 
clared war against King George III. and the Stadtholder William V. 
(1 Feb., 1793) ; other countries joined in the war against France, 
namely, Spain, Portugal, Tuscany, the Two Sicilies, and eventually, on 
22 March, the Holy Roman Empire ; Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland, 
Geneva, Genoa, Venice, the Turks and the United States of America 
remained neutral ; attitude of the Tsaritsa Catherine. 

Change in the character of the war : want of discipline in the French 
army and navy ; England became the paymaster of the coalition; the 
policy of Pitt and Grenville in England ; Thugut (b. 1734, d. 1818) be- 
came chief minister in Austria, and Haugwitz (b. 1752, d. 1832) in 
Prussia. 

Campaign of the spring and summer of 1793 : failure of Dumouriez's 
military operations (Feb. -March); the Austrians under the Prince of 
Coburg defeated Dumouriez at Neerwinden (18 March), and, with the 



The Reign of Terror. 171 

help of the English under the Duke of York, drove the French out of 
Belgium ; desertion of Dumouriez (5 April); the English and Austrian 
army invaded France and took Conde (15 July) and Valenciennes (28 
July); Custine driven from Germany (March); the Prussians under 
Brunswick took Mayence (23 July), crossed the frontier (August) and 
defeated the French at Pirmasens (14 Sept.); the Austrians and Imperi- 
alists under Wurmser invaded Alsace, laid siege to Landau, and carried 
the lines of Wissembourg (13 Oct.); French attacks repulsed by the Sar- 
dinians ; Toulon occupied by the English and Spaniards under Hood 
and Langara (28 Aug.); the Spaniards invaded France at both ends of 
the Pyrenees. 

Effect of these disasters on the Convention : decree for the levy of 
300,000 men (24 Feb.); establishment of the Revolutionary Tribunal (9 
March) and of the first Committee of Public Safety (7 Apr.); struggle 
between the Girondins and the Mountain ; overthrow of the Girondins 
(31 May-2 June). 

Outbreak of civil war : the insurrection in the Vendee ; the rising 
in Normandy ; revolt of Bordeaux, Lyons, Marseilles and Toulon. 

The Constitution of 1793 ; formation of the Great Committee of 
Public Safety (July-Sept., 1793); it established the Reign of Terror. 

The Reign of Terror in France : the Law of the Maximum ; the 
Law of the Suspects (17 Sept.); suspension of the Constitution of 1793 
and autocracy of the Great Committee ; causes of the power of the 
Great Committee ; its chief means for maintaining its authority : (1) 
the Revolutionary Tribunal ; executions in Paris ; (2) the Representa- 
tives on Mission ; their repression of internal disturbances ; the Great 
Committee restored discipline in the army and navy, and concentrated 
the resources of France for the foreign war ; incidents of the Reign of 
Terror ; the Worship of Reason ; the Noyades at Nantes. 

Campaign of the fall and winter of 1793 : plans of Carnot (b. 1753, 
d. 1823); Houchard raised the siege of Dunkirk and defeated the Duke 
of York at Hondschoten (8 Sept.); Jourdan (b. 1762, d. 1833) raised 
the siege of Maubeuge and defeated the Prince of Coburg at Wattig- 
nies (16 Oct.); Hoche (b. 1768, d. 1797), after being defeated by the 
Prussians at Kaiserslautern (28-30 Nov.), combined operations with 
Pichegru (b. 1761, d. 1804); battle of the Geisberg (26 Dec); relief of 



172 The War of the French Revolution, 

L,andau (28 Dec); retreat of the Prussians to Mayence ; the Aus- 
triaiis and Imperialists driven across the Rhine ; Toulon recovered 
by Dugommier (19 Dec); the Spaniards driven across the Pyrenees ; 
capture of Lyons (9 Oct.) and defeats of the Vendeans at Le Mans (12 
Dec.) and Savenay (22 Dec). 

Opposition to the Great Committee of Public Safety and to the Reign 
of Terror in the Convention and in Paris ; execution of the Hebertists 
(24 March, 1794) and of the Dantonists (5 April); increased stringency 
of the Reign of Terror ; the position of Robespierre (b. 1758); decree 
establishing the Worship of the Supreme Being (7 May). 

Naval operations : occupation of Corsica by the English under Hood 
and Graham (May-June, 1794); George III. offered the throne of Cor- 
sica (June); conquest of the French West Indies by Grey and Jervis ; 
Martinique (22 March, 1794), Tobago and Guadeloupe (April, 1794); the 
situation in San Domingo ; occupation of the French settlements in 
India (1793); attempt of Jeanbon Saint- Andre to revive the French 
navy; defeat of the Brest fleet by Howe (b. 1722, d. 1799) in the Battle 
of the First of June (1794). 

Campaign of 1794 : organization of the volunteer army ; work of 
Dubois- Crance ; victories of the French armies ; Jourdan defeated the 
Austrians at Fleurus (26 June), and with Pichegru occupied Belgium ; 
Rene Moreaux (b. 1758, d. 1795) defeated the Prussians near Kaisers - 
lautern (12-14 J Lli y) an{ ^ occupied Treves (9 Aug.); the French de- 
feated the Sardinians on the Italian frontier and occupied the passes of 
the Alps (May); invasion of Spain by Dagobert and Muller at both 
ends of the Pyrenees (May-June). 

With the French victories and the repulse of the invaders the neces- 
sity for submitting to the Reign of Terror ceased ; identification of 
Robespierre and his friends with the Reign of Terror ; the Revolution 
of 9 Thermidor (27 July); execution of Robespierre and his friends (28 
July); end of the Reign of Terror. 

Characteristics of the Reign of Terror in France ; triumph of the 
French Republic over the powers of Europe. 

Authorities : In addition to the general works cited under Lecture 54 should 
be noted the following special secondary works ■ For the summer of 1792 and 
the overthrow of the monarchy, Mortimer-Tern atc.r, Histoire de la Terreur ; for 



The Reign of Stanislas Poniaiovski. 173 

the Girondins, Vatel, Vergniaud ; Dan ban, Madame Roland ; Guadet, Les Giron- 
dins, and Biri, La legende des Girondins, which explodes the fancies of Laniar- 
tine and others ; for the overthrow of the Girondins, Wallon, La Revolution de 31 
Mai, and for the wandering of the escaped deputies, Vatel, Charlotte Corday et les 
Girondins ; for the Committee of Public Safety, Gros, Le Comite de salut public ; 
for the Revolutionary Tribunal, Campardon, Histoire du Tribunal revolutionnaire, 
and Walton, Histoire du Tribunal revolutionnaire de Paris, and for the deputies on 
mission, Wallon, Les Representants du peuple en mission ; for the worship of 
Reason, Anlard, Le culte de la Raison et le culte de l'Etre Supreme ; for the 
army, Rousset, Les volontaires (1791-94), and lung, Dubois-Crance ; for the navy, 
Chevalier, Histoire de la marine francaise sous la premiere Republique ; James, 
Naval History of Great Britain (1793-1820); Jollivet, Les Anglais dans la Medi- 
terranee (1794-97), nn royaume Anglo Corse ; Mahan, Influence of Sea- Power 
upon the French Revolution and Empire ; for the war upon the frontiers, Chu- 
quel, Les guerres de la Revolution, 9 vols.; Krebs and 3foris, Campagnes des 
Alpes pendant la Revolution ; Fervel, Campagnes de la Revolution francaise dans 
les Pyrenees orientales, and Ducere, L'armee des Pyrenees occidentales ; and for 
the Vendean war, Chassiti, La preparation de la guerre de Vendee, and La Vendee 
patriote. Among biographies should be specially noted Robinet, Danton ; 
Hamel, Histoire de Robespierre, and Histoire de Saint-Just ; Chevremont, Marat ; 
Avenel, Anacharsis Cloots ; Claretie, Camille et Lucile Desmoulins, and Reynaud, 
Merlin de Thionville. To the primary authorities cited under Lecture 54 
should be added Aulard, Recueil des actes du Comite de salut public, and Char- 
avay, La correspondance generale de Carnot ; and to the memoirs cited under 
Lecture 54, the Memoires of Dumouriez, Madame Roland, Senart, and Choudieu, 
together with Lacretelle, Dix annees d'epreuves. 



LECTURE 57. 



THE SECOND AND THIRD PARTITIONS OF POLAND. 

The reign of Stanislas Poniatovski (b. 1732, elected King of Poland 
1764, d. 1798). 

The designs of the Tsaritsa Catherine for the further partition of 
Poland : the Poles after the death of Frederick the Great began to 
look for help to Prussia, which desired to annex Thorn and Dantzig ; 
the Treaty of Warsaw (29 March, 1790) ; the action of the Polish en- 



174 The Polish Constitution of IJ91. 

voys at the Conference of Reichenbach (June, 1790); the independent 
attitude of Poland in 1790. 

Internal reforms effected in Poland during the reign of Stanislas : at- 
tempts made to create a national army to take the place of the feudal 
army, to establish a national system of finance, and to provide a na- 
tional scheme of education ; the aims of the Polish patriots ; they de- 
sired to make Poland a state instead of a loose confederation of nobles ; 
attitude of Russia, Prussia and Austria towards the reform party in 
Poland. 

Meeting of the Constituent Diet (6 Oct., 1788); it appointed a com- 
mittee to draw up a new constitution for Poland, raised the national 
army to 60,000 men, and decreed a large lev} 7 of taxes. 

The Polish Constitution of 1791: accepted by the Diet (3 May,i79i); 
mainly the work of Kollontai (b. 1752, d. 1812); it abolished the elec- 
tive monarchy, the liberum veto, the right to confederate and the capit- 
ulations ; it declared the throne of Poland hereditary in the House of 
Saxony after the death of Stanislas ; it created a regular government 
conferring the legislative authority on the king, senate and elected 
chamber, and the executive authority on the king aided by six minis- 
ters responsible to the legislature ; the middle classes of the cities were 
admitted to political rights and allowed to elect deputies to the legisla- 
ture ; the nobility agreed to pay taxes to the extent of ten per cent, of 
their income : serfdom was not abolished, but the Diet declared its will- 
ingness to give all arrangements, made between a lord and his serfs for 
the benefit of the latter, the sanction of the law. 

Comparison between the French and the Polish constitutions of 1791. 

Prussia and Austria at Pilnitz acknowledged the new Polish Consti- 
tution, but Catherine of Russia, fearing it would make Poland a strong 
state, determined to overthrow it ; formation of the Confederation of 
Targovitsa, which protested against the Constitution of 1791, and the 
abolition of the liberum veto ; request of the Confederates to Cathe- 
rine to aid them ; her manifesto declaring herself the guarantor of the 
ancient Polish Constitution (18 May, 1792); a Russian army under 
Suvorov invaded Poland ; the Russians defeated Joseph Poniatovski 
at Zielence (18 June) and Kosciuszko (b. 1746, d. 1817) at Dubienka (17 
July); Kollontai and the Polish constitutional leaders driven into exile; 
a Diet summoned and forced to abrogate the Constitution of 1791. 



The Final Partition of Poland, 1795. 175 

Frederick William II. of Prussia refused to aid the Polish patriots 
and sent a Prussian army into Poland ; it was owing to his interests in 
Poland that he decreased his efforts against France after the campaign 
of Valmy. 

Second treaty of partition signed by Catherine and Frederick William 
(4 Jan., 1793), and agreed to by Stanislas and the Polish Diet at Grodno 
under the pressure of Russian troops (24 Sept., 1793); by this second 
partition Russia annexed Minsk, Podolia, Volhynia and Ljttle Russia, 
while Prussia received Posen, Gnezen, Kalisch and the cities of Dant- 
zig and Thorn ; disgust of the Emperor Francis II. and of Thugut at 
Austria's receiving no share in the second partition of Poland ; their 
resolution that the war with the French Republic should not prevent 
them from looking after Austrian interests in Poland. 

The Polish insurrection of 1794 : the standard of national indepen- 
dence raised by Kosciuszko at Cracow (23 March); general insurrec- 
tion throughout Poland ; Kosciuszko defeated the Russians at Racla- 
wice (4 Apr.) and occupied Warsaw (19 Apr.); the Prussians besieged 
Warsaw (July-Sept., 1794); retirement of the Prussians; invasion of 
Poland by a Russian army under Suvorov ; Kosciuszko defeated and 
taken prisoner at Macejowice (12 Oct.); capture of Warsaw (9 Nov.); 
complete overthrow of the patriots. 

Third and final partition of Poland (3 Jan., 1795): Prussia received 
Warsaw and the neighboring provinces ; Austria received Cracow and 
the rest of Galicia ; Russia rectified its frontier as arranged in 1793 ; 
extinction of Poland as an independent state. 

Stanislas Poniatovski removed from Poland (7 Jan., 1795); his abdi- 
cation (25 Nov., 1795). 

Causes of the failure of Poland to maintain her independence ; com- 
parison between the Polish insurrection of 1794 and the successful na- 
tional resistance of France to foreign invaders in the same year. 

Influence of Polish affairs upon the progress of the war against 
France : weakening of the Prussian and Austrian armies upon the 
French frontier ; commencement of dissensions between Prussia and 
Austria. 

Authorities : In addition to Sorel, Von der Bri'tggen, Ferrand,arxA. Angeberg, 
cited under Lecture 42, see Lelewel, Geschichte Polens unter Stanislaus Augustus, 



x 7 6 The Policy of the Thermidorians. 

translated into German, and his Analyse et parallele des trois constitutions polo- 
naises de 1791, 1807 et 1815, translated into French; Kalinka, Der vierjahrige 
Polniscbe Reichstag (1788-1791); Kollontai, Vom Entstehen und Untergange der 
Polnischen Konstitution vom 3 May, 1791, translated into German by 5. B. Linde; 
Bain, The Second Partition of Poland (Eng. Hist. Rev., vol. 6); Adam Czarlorysk'i, 
Memoires et Correspondance ; Oginski, Memoires sur la Pologne et les Polonais 
de 1788 a 1815 ; Smitt, Suworrow und Polens Uutergang; Herrmann, Die CEster- 
reichisch-Preussische Allianz von 7 Feb., 1792, und die zweite Theiluug Polens; 
Zeissberg, Geschichte der Raiimung Belgiens und des Polniscben Aufstandes,' 
1794 (in tbe Archiv fur (Esterreichische Geschichte, Vol. Ixxii.); Vivenot, Quell 
len zur Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserpolitik (Esterreichs wahrend der Fran- 
zosischen Revolutionskriege, vol. v. ; Sybel, Geschichte der Revolutionszeit ; and 
Sorel, L'Europe et la Revolution francaise. 



LECTURE 58. 



THE TREATIES OF BASDE. 

The government of the Thermidorians in France : they continued 
the system of vigorous organization and centralization initiated by the 
Great Committee of Public Safety, but discontinued the bloodshed of 
the Reign of Terror. 

The internal policy of the Thermidorians : they retained the su- 
premacy of the Committees of Government and the power of the Dep- 
uties on Mission ; rising cry for vengeance against the Terrorists ; 
execution of Carrier (16 Dec, 1794); decree closing the Jacobin Club 
(12 Nov., 1794) and repeal of the Law of the Maximum (24 Dec, 1794); 
readmission to the Convention of most of the proscribed Girondins (8 
Dec, 1794), and of the remainder (8 March, 1795). 

Foreign policy of the Thermidorians : the continued victories of the 
republican armies changed the attitude of France from that of a nation 
fighting for existence to that of a conqueror; Merlin of Douai (b. 1754, 
d. 1838) defined the bases on which France might honorably make 
peace (4 Dec, 1794), and the Convention finally abandoned the idea of 
the Revolutionary Propaganda. 



The War of the French Revolution. ijj 

Campaign of 1794-5 : 

The French under Pichegru conquered the Protestant Netherlands : 
occupation of Amsterdam and capture of the Dutch fleet in the Texel 
(20 Jan., 1795); withdrawal of the English army to England; the 
Thermidorians refused to annex the Protestant Netherlands ; return of 
the Dutch "Patriots" who had been exiled in 1787; organization of 
the Batavian Republic ; the mission of Sieyes and Reubell ; alliance 
signed between the French and Batavian Republics (16 May, 1795). 

Jourdan defeated the Austrians at Aldenhoven (2 Oct., 1794), and 
occupied Aix-la-Chapelle, Bonn, Cologne (9 Oct.) and Coblentz (22 
Oct.); two French armies invaded Spain, that of the Eastern Pyrenees 
under Dugommier took Figueras (27 Nov., 1794) and under Perig- 
non took Rosas (3 Feb., 1795) and that of the Western Pyrenees under 
Moncey took Vittoria (17 July, 1795) and Bilbao (19 July); defeat by 
Hoche of the emigres landed at Quiberon Bay from English ships (July, 

1795)- 

Result of French victories at home and abroad. 

Increasing vehemence of the attacks on the Terrorist leaders ; the 
Thermidorians ousted from power by the returned Girondins and depu- 
ties of the Marsh ; influence of the Jeunesse Doree in Paris ; popular in- 
surrections and attacks on the Convention on 12 Germinal (1 April, 1795), 
and on 1 Prairial (20 May) ; disarmament of the Faubourg Saint- An- 
toine ; execution of Fouquier-Tinville (8 May) and abolition of the 
Revolutionary Tribunal (31 May); reaction in the provinces against 
the Terrorists ; the ' ' White Terror ' ' in the South ; preparations made 
for drawing up a new constitution for France ; death of the Dauphin, 
de jure Louis XVII. (8 June). 

Changed attitude of Europe towards France : general readiness to 
make peace with France, now that she had abandoned the Revolution- 
ary Propaganda and had shown herself too formidable to be conquered ; 
commencement of negotiations for peace ; treaty of peace signed with 
Tuscany (9 Feb., 1795); the French Republic thus received into the 
comity of nations. 

The negotiations at Basle between Barthelemy (b. 1750, d. 1830) for 
France and Hardenberg (b. 1750, d. 1822) for Prussia : the demands 
made by the French Republic ; the question of the natural limits of 



178 The Treaties of Basle. 

France ; treaty of peace signed with Prussia (5 April, 1795); line of 
demarcation established, protecting the Northern States of Germany 
from French invasion ; importance of this provision, which placed 
North Germany under obligations to Prussia ; by a secret article Prus- 
sia recognized the river Rhine as a natural boundary of France, and 
promised to cede all her possessions on the left bank in exchange for 
ecclesiastical states to be secularized in Germany. 

The Treaty of Basle with Prussia followed by other treaties signed at 
the same place : the most important, the treaty of peace with Spain (22 
July); the political situation in Spain; power of Godoy (b.1767, d. 
185 1), the Queen's lover, who was created Prince of the Peace. 

Other treaties signed at Basle : with Hesse-Cassel (28 Aug.), and 
other German states. 

Importance of the Treaties of Basle in the history of Europe : Prus- 
sia's assent to the proposition that the French boundary should be the 
Rhine, thus diminishing the Empire, and her readiness to further break 
up the Empire by annexing ecclesiastical territory. 

Austria's reasons for continuing the war : the policy of Thugut ; 
negotiations for the exchange of Madame Royale, daughter of Louis 
XVI., for certain deputies of the Convention held prisoners by Austria. 

Persistence of England in continuing the war ; influence of the ad- 
vice of the French emigres ; popular feeling in England with regard to 
the French Republic ; Pitt and Grenville refused to believe in the sta- 
bility of the government in France. 

Work of the Thermidorians : sudden change in the position of 
France from an invaded country, seemingly on the point of dissolution, 
to a victorious and triumphant nation. 

Authorities : No authoritative work exists upon the government of the Ther- 
midorians and hardly any documents of importance have been published on this 
period. The most useful secondary work on the period is contained in the 
various articles by Sorel in the Revue Historique, with the same author's more 
exhaustive treatment of the foreign policy in his L'Europe et la Revolution fran- 
caise, vol. 4. The most accessible primary authorities are Fain, Manuscrit 
de 1' an III.; Aulard, Paris pendant la reaction thermidorienne et sous le Direc- 
toire, and Schmidt, Tableaux de la Revolution francaise, which contains the reports 
of the spies on the condition of Paris. The material collected by Schmidt was 
worked up by him in his Pariser Zustande wahrend der Revolutionszeit, which has 



The French Constitution of the Year III. 179 

been translated into French by Viollet. For the rising of Prairial, see Claretie, 
Les derniers Montagnards, and Walton, Les Repr^sentants du peuple en mission, 
vol. 5 ; for the royalist risings, Dandet, La reaction royaliste au Midi en 
1795; for the affair at Quiberon, Thomas de Closmadeuc, Quiberon, 1795, and 
Chassin, Le general Hoche a. Ouiberon ; and for the conquest and reorgan- 
ization of Holland, Legrand, La Revolution francaise en Hollande la Re- 
publique batave ; and of Belgium, Lanzac de Laborie, La Domination fran- 
caise en Belgique (1795-1814). For the Treaties of Basle and the events 
leading to them, see Sorel, L'Europe et la Revolution francaise and La Paix 
de Bale (Revue Historique, vols. 5-7); Hausser, Deutsche Geschichte vom 
Tode Friedrichs des Grossen bis zur Griindung des deutschen Bundes ; Heigel, 
Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen bis zur Aufiosung des alten 
Reichs ; Philippson, Geschichte des preussischen Staatswesens vom Tode Fried- 
richs des Grossen ; Sybel, Geschichte der Revolutionszeit ; Gentz, Uber • den 
TJrsprungund Charakter des Kriegs gegen die franzosische Revolution ; Zeissberg, 
Zur deutsche Kaiserpolitik CEsterreichs : ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Revolu- 
tionsjahre, 1795 (Sitzungberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften 
1889); Hiiffer, Diplomatische Verhandlungen aus der Zeit der franzosischen 
Revolution; Vivenot and Zeissberg, Quellen zur Geschichte der deutschen Kaiser- 
politik Q^sterreichs wahrend der franzosischen RevolutioUskriege; Vivenot, Ver- 
trauliche Briefe des Freiherrn von Thugut (1790-1801), Herzog Albrecht von 
Sachsen-Teschen als Reichsfeldmarschall, Thugut, Clerfait und Wurmser (1794-97), 
and Zur Geschichte des Baseler Friedens ; Witzleben, Prinz Friedrich Josias von 
Coburg-Saalfeld, Herzog zu Sachsen ; Combes, Memoire sur la correspondance 
officielle de Merlin de Thionville relativement aux negociations de Bale ; and above 
all, Kaulek, Papiers de Barthelemy, ambassadeur de France en Suisse, 1792-97. 



LECTURE 59. 



THE FRENCH DIRECTORY, AND THE FIRST VICTORIES 
OF BONAPARTE. 

The Constitution of the Year III. (1795): its most important feature, 
the attempted separation of *the executive and legislative authority, the 
former being vested in five Directors, the latter in two Chambers, the 
Council of Ancients and the Council of Five Hundred. 

The Convention resolved that two-thirds of the first legislature, un- 
der the new constitution, should be elected from among themselves ; 



180 The Policy of the *First Directors. 

discontent expressed among those who wished for further reaction 
against the Terrorists at this resolution ; insurrection of 13 Vendemi- 
aire (5 Oct., 1795) in Paris, and its suppression. 

The first Directors : Barras (b. 1755, d. 1829), Reubell (b 1746, d. 
1810), Revelliere-L,epeaux (b. 1753, d. 1824), Carnot (b. 1753, d. 1823) 
and L,etourneur (b. 1751, d. 1817). 

The foreign policy of the first Directors : adoption of the principles 
of the Thermidorians ; readiness to make peace on the terms of receiv- 
ing the natural boundaries of France ; the only enemies of the Repub- 
lic left were England, Austria and Sardinia ; the treasonable intrigues 
of Pichegru ; the activity of the emigres ; exchange of Madame Roy- 
ale (20 Dec, 1795); attitude of Austria, England, Prussia, Spain and 
the smaller states of Europe towards the French Republic; endeavors 
of the Directors to form an alliance with Prussia and Spain. 

Failure of the French armies upon the Rhine in the winter campaign 
cf 1795, owing to the treachery of Pichegru ; Pichegru succeeded by 
Jean Victor Moreau (b. 1763, d. 1813). 

The condition and military situation of the Army of Italy : Scherer 
pushed forward and by the victory of Loano (23-25 November, 1795) 
opened communications with the Republic of Genoa, which was well 
affected to France. 

Napoleon Bonaparte (b. 1769, d. 1821) in command of the Army of 
Italy (27 March, 1796); his previous career. 

Campaign of 1796 in Italy : first stage : Bonaparte turned the Mar- 
itime Alps and separated the Sardinian from the Austrian army ; he 
defeated the Sardinians under Colli at Montenotte (12 April), Millesimo 
(13 April), Dego (15 April), Ceva (16 April) and Mondovi (22 April); 
Victor Amadeus III. of Sardinia signed the Armistice of Cherasco (28 
April), and made peace with the French Republic, ceding Savoy and 
Nice to France (15 May). 

Campaign of 1796 in Italy : second stage : Bonaparte crossed the Po, 
and (10 May) forced the passage of the Adda at the bridge of Lodi ; 
the Austrians evacuated Dombardy ; Bonaparte occupied Milan and 
laid siege to Mantua ; the Dukes of Parma and of Modena forced to sue 
for peace ; Bonaparte occupied the Legations of Ferrara and Bologna ; 
Pope Pius VI. signed the Armistice of Foligno (23 June). 



The Ca?7ipaig?i of iyp6. 181 

Campaign of 1796 in Italy : third stage : an Austrian army under 
Wurmser invaded Italy for the relief of Mantua; Bonaparte broke up 
the siege and defeated the Austrians at Castiglione (5 Aug.); Wurmser 
retreated, but in the following month entered Italy by the valley of the 
Brenta, and reinforced the garrison of Mantua ; delegates from the 
whole of northern Italy summoned by Bonaparte to meet at Milan. 

Campaign of 1796 in Italy : fourth stage : renewed effort made by the 
Emperor Francis II. for the recovery of L,ombardy ; his appeal to his 
people ; the Austrian army under Alvinzi invaded Italy by the Brenta ; 
the French repulsed at Caldiero (12 Nov.); Bonaparte victorious in the 
battle of Areola (16 Nov.); retreat of the Austrians. 

Campaign of 1796 in Italy : fifth stage : the Austrians made a last 
effort to relieve Mantua by way of L,ake Garda ; Bonaparte defeated 
Alvinzi at Rivoli (14 Jan., 1797); surrender of Mantua (2 Feb., 1797); 
advance of Bonaparte on Rome ; Pope Pius VI. signed the Treaty of 
Tolentino (19 Feb., 1797). 

Effect of the campaign of 1796 on Italy, on Austria and on Europe ; 
its effect on the position of the Directors in France. 

Campaign of 1796 in Germany : Jourdan and Moreau invaded South- 
ern Germany, but were out-manceuvred and driven back by the Arch- 
duke Charles (b. 1771, d. 1847); battle of Altenkirchen (27 Sept.) and 
death of Marceau (b. 1769); famous retreat of Moreau; effect of this 
campaign on Germany ; Frederick William II. of Prussia signed a 
secret supplement to the Treaty of Basle (5 Aug., 1796); Baden, Wiir- 
temberg and Bavaria entered into negotiations with the French Re- 
public. 

Charles IV. of Spain, under the influence of Godoy, signed an offen- 
sive and defensive alliance with the French Republic at San Ildefonso 
(19 Aug., 1796), and declared war against England (8 Oct.) ; with- 
drawal of the English from Corsica (Oct.); Sir John Jervis defeated 
the Spanish fleet off Cape Saint-Vincent (14 Feb., 1797); an English 
army under Sir Charles Stuart (b. 1753, d. 1831) sent to defend Portugal 
against Spain. 

The Directory and England: L,ord Malmesbury sent to Paris to dis- 
cuss bases of peace (Nov.-Dec, 1796); Hoche's expedition for the 
invasion of Ireland foiled by stormy weather (Dec. 1796). 



182 The Treaty of Campo-Formio, 1797. 

Internal policy of the first Directors: pacification of Brittany and the 
Vendee by Hoche; conspiracies of Babeuf (May, 1796) and of the camp 
of Grenelle (Sept., 1796); financial condition of France. 

Death of the Tsaritsa Catherine II. of Russia (17 Nov., 1796); acces- 
sion of the Tsar Paul ; his character. 

Campaign of 1797 : Bonaparte invaded the Tyrol and approached 
Vienna; preliminaries of peace between France and Austria signed at 
Leoben (18 April, 1797), by which Austria agreed to recognize the 
Rhine as the frontier of France, which involved the cession of Belgium, 
and to take Venetia in exchange for Lombardy; a congress was fixed to 
meet at Rastadt to arrange terms of peace between the French Repub- 
lic and the Holy Roman Empire. 

The elections of 1797 in France : Barthelemy elected a Director in 
the place of Letourneur ; the majority of the legislature opposed to the 
majority of the Directors ; fresh negotiations for peace with England, 
which had been commenced at Lille, broken off; the majority of the 
Directors were supported by Hoche and Bonaparte. 

The coup d'etat of 18 Fructidor (4 Sept., 1797); Merlin of Douai and 
Francois de Neufchateau elected Directors in the place of Carnot and 
Barthelemy; death of Hoche (18 Sept.). 

Bonaparte's policy in Italy: occupation of Venice (16 May); disso- 
lution of the ancient government of Genoa and formation of the Ligurian 
Republic (14 June, 1797); formation of the northern Italian states, 
except Piedmont, into the Cisalpine Republic (9 July); annexation of 
the Ionian Islands to the French Republic ; effect of Bonaparte's 
Italian policy. 

Signature of the Treaty of Campo-Formio between Austria and 
France (17 Oct., 1797): the Preliminaries of Leoben followed; its open 
and its secret clauses ; capture of Mayence by Hatry (29 Dec, 1797). 

Critical position of England in 1797 : she remained the only nation 
in arms against the French Republic ; the mutiny of the Nore and 
other naval mutinies ; Duncan defeated the Dutch fleet in the battle of 
Camperdown (11 Oct., 1797). 

Arrival of Bonaparte in Paris (5 Dec, 1797); his reception by the 
Directors ; appointed to the command of an army intended to invade 
England; finding this impracticable, he suggested and prepared an ex- 
pedition to Egypt. 



The Directory. 183 

Authorities : There is no complete and satisfactory history of the Directory ; 
Barante, Histoire du Directoire, is out of date, and the modern work of Sciout, Le 
Directoire, only comes down to Fructidor. On special points the following sec- 
ondary works may be noted ; on Vendemiaire, Zivy, Le treize vendemiaire, an 
IV.; on the conspiracy of Babeuf, Advielle, Histoire de Babeuf et du Babouvisme ; 
on the coup d' etat of Fructidor, Larue, Histoire du 18 Fructidor, and Pierre, La 
Terreur sous le Directoire, and Le Dix-huit Fructidor ; for the society, Goncourt, 
Histoire de la Societe francaise pendant le Directoire ; on the expedition to Ire- 
land, Guillon, Da France et 1' Irlande sous le Directoire, and Escande, Hoche en 
Irlande ; on the plots of the emigres, Lebon, D'Angleterre et l'emigration francaise 
de 1794 a 1800; for the finances, Stourm, Les finances de 1' Ancien Regime et 
de la Revolution ; together with Sorel, Bonaparte et Hoche en 1797. Primary 
authorities on these subjects are : Real, Essai sur les journees de 13 et 14 ven- 
demiaire ; Danican, Les brigands demasques, for the 13th vendemiaire ; Buona- 
rotti, Conspiration pour 1' dgalite\ dit de Babeuf; Bailleul, Rapport sur le Dix-huit 
Fructidor ; Carnot, Rdponse au rapport de Bailleul ; Barbe-Marbois, Journal d' 
un deports, and Ramel, Journal, for the coup d' etat of Fructidor ; for the conduct 
of foreign affairs, Bailleu, Preussen und Frankreich von 1795-1807, containing the 
correspondence of the Prussian ministers at Paris ; Mallet du Pan, Correspondance 
ine'dite avec la cour de Vienne, and Wickham, Correspondence (1794-99); for the 
condition of Paris, Schmidt, Tableaux de la Revolution francaise, vol. 3 ; and 
among memoirs, those of Revelliere-Lepeaux , Barras, and Talleyrand, with Thi- 
baudeau, Memoires sur la Convention et le Directoire. For Napoleon's campaign 
in Italy the account given by Thiers, Histoire de la Revolution francaise, is un- 
surpassed for graphic power and substantial accuracy ; see also Sargent, Napoleon 
Bonaparte's First Campaign ; Tung, Bonaparte et son temps (1769-99) ; Silvagni, 
Napoleone Buonaparte e i suoi tempi ; Lanfrey, Histoire de Napoleon, and Pomme- 
reul, Campagnes du general Bonaparte en Italie ; while the primary authority 
is Napoleon, Correspondance; for the resettlement of Italy, Gaffarel, Bonaparte 
et les republiques italiennes, and Bigorri, La caduta della Republica di Genova 
nel 1797. Jomini, Histoire critique et militaire des campagnes de la Revolution de 
1792 a 1801, describes the campaigns in Germany as well as those in Italy ; upon 
the former see also Jourdan, Memoires pour servir a, l'histoire de la campagne de 
1796 ; Saint-Albin, Vie de Hoche ; Parfait, Le general Marceau ; Paj'ol, Kleber, 
sa vie, sa correspondance ; Martha-Beker, Le general Desaix ; Bonnal, Histoire de 
Desaix ; Philippart, Life of General Moreau, and Rainbaud, Les Francais sur le 
Rhin (1792-1804). For the naval war see Chevalier and James, cited under Lec- 
ture 56, with Brenton, Life of Lord St. Vincent ; Tucker, Memoirs of Lord 
St. Vincent, and Camperdown, Admiral Duncan. 



184 The French Expedition to Egypt, z?p<3. 

LECTURE 60. 



THE SECOND COALITION AGAINST THE FRENCH REPUBLIC. 

Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt (1798): capture of Malta (10-17 
June); after landing in Egypt (1 July) he occupied Alexandria (2 July), 
won the battle of the Pyramids (21 July) and occupied Cairo (24 July); 
Nelson (b. 1758, d. 1805) destroyed the French fleet in Aboukir Bay at 
the Battle of the Nile (1 Aug.); Bonaparte and his army thus pre- 
vented from leaving Egypt. 

Treilhard elected a Director in the place of Francois de Neufchateau 
(May, 1798). 

Foreign policy of the Fructidorian Directors : their efforts against 
England ; the expedition to Egypt intended for the overthrow of Eng- 
land's power in Asia ; the intrigues of the Directors in Ireland ; a force 
under Humbert, sent to assist in the Irish insurrection of 1798, sur- 
rendered to Cornwallis (8 Sept., 1798). 

Pitt's endeavors to form a new coalition against the French Republic. 

The position in Prussia : death of Frederick William II. and acces- 
sion of Frederick William III. (16 Nov., 1797); character and training 
of the new king; he dismissed his father's favorites, undertook re- 
forms, endeavored to put the finances in order and appointed trust- 
worthy ministers ; in foreign politics he resolved to maintain absolute 
neutrality between France and England in spite of the special missions 
of Thomas Grenville and Sieyes ; policy of Haugwitz. 

The position in Austria : detestation felt for the French ; popularity 
of the Emperor Francis II. ; riot in Vienna (13 April, 1798) against 
the French ambassador, Bernadotte (b. 1764, d. 1844) 5 the Emperor 
entertained the proposals of Pitt for a new coalition. 

The position in Russia : character of the Tsar Paul ; his readiness to 
abandon the policy of Catherine and to interfere in the affairs of West- 
ern Europe ; his wrath with the French Republic for seizing Malta and 
the Ionian Islands and for interfering in the affairs of the Eastern Med- 
iterranean by invading Egypt ; his agreement to join the coalition and 
to send armies to cooperate with the Austrians and the English against 
the French Republic. 



The Campaign of 17pp. 185 

The position in the smaller states of Europe : Sweden and Denmark 
maintained an attitude of friendly neutrality towards France ; Portugal 
requested the withdrawal of the English army under Stuart, who then 
occupied Minorca (15 Nov., 1798); Spain remained in close alliance 
with France ; the Turks declared war against the French Republic (1 
Sept.) after the invasion of Egypt. 

Change in the constitution of the Batavian Republic ; establishment 
of a Directory of five members (22 Jan., 1798); promulgation of a con- 
stitution modelled on that of the Year III. in France (17 March). 

Revolution in Switzerland : intervention of the French ; formation of 
the Helvetic Republic (April, 1798); occupation of Geneva and the 
Valais by French troops. 

The French in Italy : murder of Duphot in Rome (28 Dec, 1797); 
occupation of Rome by Berthier (15 Feb., 1798); departure of Pope 
Pius VI., who was eventually carried prisoner to France and died at 
Valence (29 Aug., 1799); formation of the Roman Republic (20 March, 
1798); Ferdinand IV., King of Naples and Sicily, after the news of 
Nelson's victory of the Nile, drove the French from Rome ; Cham- 
pionnet re-occupied Rome ^15 Dec, 1798), defeated the Neapolitan 
army, occupied Naples (Jan., 1799) and established the Parthenopean 
Republic (23 Jan.); the French troops occupied Piedmont (Dec, 1798) 
and Tuscany (March, 1799). 

General indignation in Europe at the aggressions of the French Direc- 
tory : the Second Coalition, freed from the fear of Bonaparte, resolved 
to act ; commencement of war ; the French defeated at Stockach (25 
March, 1799), and at Magnano (5 April); the negotiations at Rastadt 
broken off and two of the French plenipotentiaries murdered (28 April). 
Campaign of 1799 in Italy : a Russian army under Suvorov defeated 
Moreau at Cassano (27 April), occupied Milan (29 April) and Turin 
(27 May), and laid siege to Genoa ; the Russians defeated the French 
under Macdonald (b. 1765, d. 1840) at the Trebbia (17-19 June); Fer- 
dinand IV. re-occupied Naples ( June) ; the Austrians under Kray oc- 
cupied northern Italy and, with the Russians under Suvorov, defeated 
the French under Joubert at Novi (15 Aug.); the Austrians under 
Melas defeated Championnet at Genola (4 Nov.). 

Campaign of 1799 in Switzerland: Massena (b. 1758, d. 18 17) defeated 



1 86 The Revolution of 18 Brumaire, 1J99. 

the Russians under Korsakov at Zurich (26 Sept.); Suvorov's army 
destroyed in crossing the Alps (Sept.); the Archduke Charles compelled 
by Massena's victory to abandon his scheme of invading France. 

Campaign of 1799 in Holland : the English under Sir Ralph Aber- 
cromby (b. 1734, d. 1801) and Admiral Mitchell seized the remnant of 
the Dutch fleet in the Texel (27 Aug.); an English army under the 
Duke of York (b. 1763, d. 1827), and a Russian army under Hermann, 
landed in Holland; the invaders defeated by General Brune (b. 1763, d. 
18 15); by the Convention of Alkmaar (18 Oct.) the invaders agreed 
to evacuate Holland. 

Capture of Corfu by a Russian expedition (2 March, 1799); organiza- 
tion of a Republic of the Ionian Islands, under the protection of the 
Tsar, but tributary to the Sultan ; blockade of Malta by an English 
squadron (1 798-1 800); surrender of the French garrison to the English 
(5 Sept., 1800). 

Bonaparte's campaign in Syria: he invaded Palestine (Feb., 1799) 
and laid siege to Acre ; defeat of the Turks at Mount Tabor (16 Apr.); 
abandonment of the siege of Acre (20 May) and retreat into Egypt ; 
he defeated a Turkish army which had been landed from English ships 
in Egypt (25 July) and re-established French supremacy there ; his 
resolution to abandon his army and return to France. 

Effect of the campaign of 1799 upon the allied Powers : wrath of the 
Tsar Paul with the English and the Austrians ; his negotiations with 
France. 

Effect of the campaign of 1799 on the position in France : struggle 
between the Legislature and the Directory; reversal of the condition of 
affairs in 1797; Sieyes succeeded Reubell as Director ( May, 1799); Coup 
d'itat of 30 Prairial (18 June, 1799); Gohier, Roger Ducos and Moulin 
succeeded Treilhard, Merlin of Douai and Revelliere-Eepeaux as Direc- 
tors ; the policy of Sieyes and of Talleyrand. 

Bonaparte escaped the English cruisers in the Mediterranean and 
reached France (9 Oct.), and Paris (16 Oct.) ; his determination to 
overthrow the goverment of the Directory. 

Revolution of 18 Brumaire (9 Nov., 1799); Bonaparte, Sieyes and 
Roger Ducos declared provisional Consuls. 

Effect of the Revolution of 18 Brumaire on France and on Europe. 



The Consulate. 187 

Authorities : Among secondary authorities, Barante, Goncourt, Guillon 
and Lebon, cited under Lecture 59, and Haiisser, Heigel, Philippson, Legrand, 
Sybel and Hiiffer, cited under Lecture 58, are still useful ; and among primary 
authorities, Bailleu, Mallet du Pan, Wickham, Schmidt, Revelliere-Lepeaux, 
Barras, Talleyrand, Thibaudeau, Jomini and Napoleon^ Correspondance, cited 
under Lecture 59, and Vivenot and Zeissberg, cited under Lecture 58. To them 
should be added for general and diplomatic history, Hiiffer, Diplomatische Ver- 
handlungen aus der Zeit der franzosische Revolution ; Vivenot, Zur Geschichte 
des Rastadter Kongresses ; Helfert, Der Rastadter Gesandtenmord ; Masson, Les 
diplomates de la Revolution : Hugou de Bassville a. Rome, Bernadotte a, Vienne; 
Wertheimer, Erzherzog Karl und die Zweite Koalition bis zum Frieden von Lune- 
ville (Archiv fur Q^sterreichische Geschichte, vol. 67); for events in Italy, see 
Franchetti, Storia d'ltalia dal 1789 al 1799 \ Tivaroni, Storia critica del Risorgi- 
mento Italiano ; Carutti, Storia della corte di Savoia durante la Rivoluzione e 
l'Impero Francese ; Baldassari, Histoire de l'enlevement et la captivite" de Pie VI.; 
Artaud, Histoire de Pie VI. ; Helfert, Konigin Karolina von Neapel und Sicilien 
im Kampfe gegen die franzosische Weltherrschaft, and Fabrizio Ruffo ; Revolution 
und Gegen-Revolution von Neapel, Nov., 1798 bis Aug., 1799; Hiiffer, Die 
neapolitanische Republik des Jahres 1799 ; and the Memoirs of Miot de Melito, 
Macdonald and Thiebaiilt ; for the Swiss revolution see Tillier, Histoire de la 
republique helvetique (1798-1803); Rochette, Histoire de la revolution helvetique 
de 1797 a. 1803; Roverea, Memoires; for the military history in Europe, see Jomini, 
Mathieu Dumas, Precis des evenements militaires sur la campagne de 1799; 
Michailowski-Danilewski and Miliutin, Geschichte des Krieges Russlands mit 
Frankreich im Jahre 1799 ; Macready, Sketch of Suwarow and his Last Campaign ; 
Reding-Biberegg, Der Zug Suworoff's durch die Schweiz; Gunther, Der Feldzug der 
Division Lecourbe im Schweizerischen Hochgebirge, 1799 ; Bonnal, La guerre de 
Hollande, and L'affaire du Texel, and Bunbury, Some Passages in the Great War 
with France ; for the campaign in Egypt, in addition to Lanfrey and lung, see 
Bertrand, Relation des campagnes du general Bonaparte en Egypte et en Syrie ; 
Boulay de la Meurthe, Le Directoire et l'expedition d'Egypte ; Gall, Bonaparte en 
Egypte and Guitry, L'arm^e de Bonaparte en Egypte (1798-99); for the Revolu- 
tion of 18 Brumaire, see Lucien Bonaparte, Revolution de Brumaire, and Memoires, 
and Gohier, Mdmoires. 



LECTURE 61. 



THE TREATIES OF LUNEVILLE AND OF AMIENS. 

Constitution of the Year VIII. (1799): executive power assumed by 
Bonaparte as First Consul; Cambaceres (b. 1753, d. 1824) and I,e Brun 
(b. 1739, d. 1824) appointed Second and Third Consuls. 



1 88 The Treaty of Ltineville, 1801. 

The foreign policy of Bonaparte as First Consul : his negotiations 
with Russia ; the Tsar Paul's admiration for Bonaparte ; he ordered 
Louis XVIII. to leave Russia and proposed that Bonaparte should 
make himself King of France ; Bonaparte's negotiations with Prussia ; 
Frederick William III. expressed personal admiration for Bonaparte, 
but refused to abandon his attitude of neutrality ; Bonaparte's negotia- 
tions with the new Pope, Pius VII. — Chiaramonti ; his resolution to 
continue the war with Austria and with England. 

Bonaparte's campaign of 1800 in Italy : the defence of Genoa by 
Massena; surrender of Genoa (4 June) ; Bonaparte's passage of the Alps 
by the Great St. Bernard; battle of Montebello (9 June); utter defeat 
of the Austrians under Melas at Marengo (14 June), and death of 
Desaix (b. 1768); the French reoccupied the whole of Northern Italy 
without further fighting ; reestablishment of the Cisalpine and Eigurian 
Republics. 

Campaign of 1800 in Germany: manoeuvres of Moreau and the Arch- 
duke Charles ; Moreau at Munich ; Moreau ordered to continue the 
campaign into the winter; his defeat of the Archduke John (b. 1782, d. 
1859) at Hohenlinden (3 Dec); Macdonald crossed the Spliigen and 
with Brune threatened Vienna; Moreau's advance on Vienna; the 
Emperor Francis II. obliged to make peace. 

Signature of the Treaty of Euneville (9 Feb., 1801) by Joseph Bona- 
parte (b. 1768, d. 1844) and Cobenzl (b. 1753, d. 1808), the French and 
Austrian plenipotentiaries : by this treaty the Emperor Francis, both as 
Holy Roman Emperor and as ruler of Austria, acknowledged the Rhine 
to be the frontier of France and recognized the Cisalpine Republic ; 
Austria again received Venice ; the Duke of Modena, whose heiress 
had married the Austrian Archduke Ferdinand, received the Breisgau 
in exchange for his duchy, now absorbed in the Cisalpine Republic ; 
Tuscany converted into the Kingdom of Etruria and conferred upon the 
son of the Duke of Parma, a relative of the King of Spain, and the 
Grand Duke Ferdinand promised a principality in Germany; Ferdi- 
nand IV., King of Naples and Sicily, allowed to retain his dominions, 
and the Pope received back the States of the Church, with the exception 
of Bologna and Ferrara ; agreement made for the re-constitution of the 
Holy Roman Empire and the secularization of the German ecclesi- 



The Treaty of Amiens, 1802. 189 

astical principalities ; Thugut succeeded by Cobenzl in charge of Aus- 
trian foreign affairs. 

Further arrangements in Italy: the Cisalpine Republic reorganized 
on the model of the new form of government in France, and Bonaparte 
declared President of it, as the Italian Republic (Jan., 1802) ; Melzi (b. 
!753> d. 18 16) appointed Vice-President ; the Ligurian Republic reestab- 
lished, with the provision that its Doge be appointed by France. 

The Batavian Republic reorganized (6 Oct., 1801) ; the Directory 
abolished and replaced by the "government of state" of twelve 
members. 

The Tsar Paul of Russia : his proposals to Bonaparte for a joint cam- 
paign against England ; his mad freaks and unpopularity in Russia; his 
assassination (23 March, 1801). 

Bonaparte's action against England : his desire to strike at her com- 
merce ; reestablishment of the Armed Neutrality, or Neutral League of 
the North, originally established by the Tsaritsa Catherine in 1780; the 
English, under Parker and Nelson, bombarded Copenhagen and de- 
stroyed the Danish fleet (2 April, 1801). 

War between Spain and Portugal : Bonaparte ordered that the Por- 
tuguese ports should be closed to English trade and certain cessions 
made to Spain ; Prince John of Portugal, who was formally declared 
Prince Regent in 1799, refused ; the Spaniards invaded Portugal and 
defeated the Portuguese armies ; by the Treaty of Badajoz (6 June, 
1 801) Portugal ceded Olivenza to Spain ; occupation of Madeira and 
Goa by the English. 

The campaign in Egypt (1800-1801): victory of Kleber (b. 1753) at 
Heliopolis (20 March, 1800); assassination of Kleber (14 June, j8oo); 
landing of an English army under Abercromby in Egypt (8 March, 
1801): battle of Alexandria (21 March); surrender of Cairo and Alex- 
andria ; the French agreed to evacuate Egypt (2 Sept., 1801). 

Desire for peace in both England and France ; resignation of Pitt, 
who was succeeded by Addington (March, 1801); negotiations for peace; 
the Treaty of Amiens signed by Joseph Bonaparte and Lord Cornwallis 
(25 March, 1802); by the terms of this treaty England restored Mar- 
tinique and Guadeloupe to France, but retained Trinidad, conquered 
from Spain, and Ceylon, conquered from the Dutch ; England promised 



i go The Consulate. 

to restore Malta to the Knights of St. John, if their independence was 
guaranteed by the Great Powers. 

By the Treaties of Luneville and Amiens, Europe was for the first 
time entirely at peace, since France declared war against Austria in 
1792 ; position of the powers of Europe towards each other ; France 
had come out of the struggle not only with undiminished power, but 
with a general recognition of the Rhine as her frontier ; commanding 
position of Bonaparte as First Consul. 

Attitude towards France of England, Austria, Prussia, Russia and 
Spain. 

Authorities : For the drawing up of the government of the Consulate see the 
Registre des deliberations du Consulat provisoire (11 N0V.-24 Dec, 1799), ed. 
Aulard ; for the campaign of Marengo in addition to Jomini, cited under Lec- 
ture 59, see the excellent account given in Thiers, Histoire du Consulat et de 
l'Empire, and Sargent, The Campaign of Marengo ; for the campaign in Egypt, 
see Wilson, History of the British Expedition to Egypt ; for the Treaty of Lune- 
ville, Krones, Geschichte CEsterreichs im Zeitalter des franzosischen Kriege und 
der Restauration ; Beer, Zehn Jahre cesterreichischen Politik, 1801-10, and 
Fournier, Gentz und Cobenzl : Geschichte der cesterreichischen Diplomatie in 
den Jahre 1801-05 ; for the Treaty of Amiens, Pellew, Life of Lord Sidmouth, and 
Ross, The Correspondence of the Marquess Cornwallis. 



LECTURE 62. 



THE CONSULATE IN FRANCE, AND THE RE-CONSTITUTION 
OF GERMANY. 

The constitution of the Consulate : the Council of State, the Senate, 
the Tribunate and the Legislative Body ; the National List. 

The government of the Consulate : its policy of reconciliation ; many 
hnigres permitted to return ; complete pacification of the Vendee by the 
Treaty of Montlucon (17 Jan., 1800); suppression of brigandage ; res- 
toration of internal peace. 

The financial policy of the Consulate : the work of Gaudin (b. 1756, 
d. 1844); taxes fairly levied and collected; corruption punished; 
foundation of the Bank of France (13 Feb., 1800). 



The Consulate. 191 

The Consulate and legal reform : commissions appointed to draw up 
codes of law and procedure. 

The Consulate and the Catholic Church : Bonaparte's negotiations 
with the Papacy ; end of the schism which had lasted since the Civil 
Constitution of the Clergy was enacted in 1790 ; terms of the Concordat 
signed by Pope Pius VII. and the First Consul Bonaparte (15 July, 
1801), and promulgated (8 April, 1802). 

The Consulate and education : Bonaparte's attempt to establish a 
scheme of national education. 

The Consulate and the internal administration of France : formation 
of the Prefectures ; the left bank of the Rhine and Geneva organized 
as part of France; the work of Chaptal (b. 1756, d. 1832). 

The Consulate and the colonies of France : Bonaparte desired to 
restore the power of France in America ; he obtained Louisiana from 
Spain (1800) and an extension of French Guiana from Portugal (1801); 
he re-occupied Guadeloupe and Martinique by the Treaty of Amiens ; 
expedition to San Domingo ; resistance of Toussaint Louverture. 

Constitutional changes made during the Consulate : effect of the Con- 
spiracy of the Infernal Machine (24 Dec, 1800) ; Bonaparte declared, 
after an appeal to the primary assemblies, First Consul for life (2 Aug., 
1802), and enabled to nominate a successor (4 Aug.); the National 
List suppressed and replaced by Electoral Colleges. 

The ministers of the Consulate : Talleyrand, Minister of Foreign 
Affairs ; Gaudin, of Finance; Regnier, of Justice ; Chaptal, of the In- 
terior ; Berthier, of War ; Decres, of the Marine ; Fouche, of Police. 

The re-constitution of Germany : the new arrangements made neces- 
sary by the cession to France by the Treaty of Luneville of the left 
bank of the Rhine and by the proofs that had been given, during the 
war, of the intrinsic weakness of the political system of the Empire ; 
the new arrangements accepted by the Imperial Diet (24 March, 1803) 
and by the Emperor (27 April) ; the Holy Roman Empire, as it had 
existed since the Treaties of Westphalia, practically came to an end. 

Changes made in the Colleges of the Imperial Diet : (1) the College 
of Electors increased from eight electors, three ecclesiastical and five 
lay, to ten electors, one ecclesiastical and nine lay ; the Archbishops of 
Cologne and Treves lost their electoral dignity owing to their dominions 



192 The Reconstitution of Germany in 1803. 

being absorbed into France ; the Archbishop of Mayence continued as 
an elector and received as his dominions the bishopric of Ratisbon, the 
principality of Aschaffenburg and the county of Wetzlar ; the nine lay 
electors were Bohemia, Brandenburg, Saxony, Bavaria and Hanover, 
with four new electors, the Margrave of Baden, the Duke of Wiirtem- 
berg, the L,andgrave of Hesse- Cassel and Ferdinand, formerly Grand 
Duke of Tuscany, who was made Elector of Salzburg ; ( 2) College of 
Princes : owing to the secularization of the Catholic bishoprics and 
monasteries this college was reduced in importance and contained a 
majority of Protestant princes ; (3) College of Free Cities : this college 
would have been entirely abolished but for the intervention of France ; 
as it was, only six free cities were maintained out of fifty-two, namely, 
Augsburg, Bremen, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Hamburg, lyiibeck and 
Nuremberg ; these changes in the Imperial Diet deprived the Catholics, 
and Austria, the chief Catholic power, of their predominance. 

The secularization of the ecclesiastical states : this step, which had 
been suggested by France at Basle and by Bonaparte at Leoben, was 
nominally undertaken to compensate those Princes of the Empire who 
had lost territory by the cession of the left bank of the Rhine to 
France ; the princes who profited most were, however, those who were 
already powerful ; thus Prussia, Bavaria, Baden, Wurtemberg and Han- 
over all received important accessions of territory, making them com- 
pact and populous states ; Austria received only two small bishoprics, 
Brixen and Trent, but two Austrian Princes, the Grand Duke Ferdi- 
nand and the Duke of Modena, received the German states of Salzburg 
and the Breisgau in compensation for the loss of their Italian principali- 
ties ; the Prince of Orange, formerly Stadtholder in the United Nether- 
lands, received the bishopric of Fulda. 

Effect upon the policy and condition of Germany of these sweeping 
changes, destroying the Holy Roman Empire and building up strong 
German states. 

The re-constitution of Switzerland : Bonaparte's interference in Swiss 
politics ; by the Act of Mediation (19 Feb., 1803) he restored federal gov- 
ernment, but maintained the abolition of feudal relics and the internal 
reforms made by the Helvetic Republic ; to the thirteen old cantons — six 
democratic, Appenzell, Glarus, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Uri and Zug, 



The Reconstitution oj \ Switzerland in 1803. 193 

and seven oligarchical, Basle, Berne, Freiburg, Lucerne, Schaflhausen, 
Soleure and Zurich — he added six new cantons — Vaud, Aargau, Thur- 
gau, Ticino, Saint- Gall and the Grisons ; but he retained Geneva as 
part of France and established the independent Republic of the Valais ; 
he regulated the relations between the federal and cantonal governments, 
and was called Mediator of the Swiss Confederation, a title which he 
officially assumed in 1809. 

Authorities : A brief account of the Consulate and of the re-constitution of Ger- 
many and Switzerland is given in Morse Stephens, Europe, 1789-1815, chap. vii. 
For the Consulate, see Thiers, Histoire du Consulat et de 1' Empire ; Thibaudeau, 
Memoires sur le Consulat, and Le Consulat et l'Empire, and for the policy of 
Bonaparte, the various lives and histories, particularly Lanfrey, Fournier and 
Taine, with Pelet, Opinions de Napoleon au Conseil d'Etat. Special secondary 
books are Rocquain, Etat de la France au 18 Brumaire ; Dandet, La police et les 
Chouans sous le Consulat et l'Empire ; Guillon, Les conspirations militaires sous 
le Consulat et l'Empire Destrem, Les deportations du Consulat et de l'Empire ; 
Aucoc, Le Conseil d'Etat, and Fauriel, Les derniers jours du Consulat. The Me- 
moirs most valuable for the subjects treated in this lecture are those of Chaptal, 
Lucien Bonaparte, Talleyrand, Mollien, Roederer, Pasquier and Gaudin. For 
the Concordat, consult Boulay de la Meurthe, Documents sur la negociation du Con- 
cordat ; Sichi, Les origines du Concordat; Theiner, Histoire des deux Concordats, 
and the valuable work of D' Haussonville, L'Eglise romaine et le premier Empire 
(1800-1814). For the re-constitution of Germany, see Gaspari, Der Reichsdeputa- 
tionshauptschluss ; Rambaud, La Domination francaise en Allemagne ; Haiisser, 
Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen; Oncken, Das Zeitalter der 
Revolution, des Kaiserreichs und der Befreiungskriege ; Beer, Z€hn Jahre cester- 
reichischer Politik, 1801-1810, and Heigel, Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Fried- 
richs des Grossen. For the re-constitution of Switzerland, see Dandliker, Histoire 
du peuple Suisse ; Hilly, Les Constitutions federates de la Suisse ; Rochette, 
Histoire de la revolution helve'tique de 1797 a 1803 ; Roverea, Memoires, and 
Jahn, Bonaparte, Talleyrand et Stapfer, 1800-1803. 



LECTURE 63. 



THE POWER OF NAPOLEON AT ITS HEIGHT. 

Recommencement of war between France and England (18 May, 
1803): causes of the war ; the points left unsettled by the Treaty of 



194 The Emperor Napoleon. 

Amiens ; the question of Malta, which the English refused to surren- 
der ; the interference of the First Consul in Switzerland and his annex- 
ation of Piedmont (n Sept., 1802) regarded as evidences of the desire 
of France further to disturb the peace of Europe ; Bonaparte's wrath 
at the libels published upon him in England ; the trial of Peltier ; the 
embassy of Whit worth to Paris ; the English seized French ships and 
Bonaparte in reprisal arrested all Englishmen travelling in France and 
occupied Hanover. 

Formation of the Grande Armee ; Bonaparte's genius for military 
organization ; his establishment of the camp at Boulogne and prepara- 
tions to invade England. 

Difficulties of Bonaparte's position ; the plot of Pichegru, Georges 
Cadoudal and others against his life ; arrest and execution of the Due 
d'Enghien (21 March, 1804). 

Bonaparte offered the title of Emperor of the French by the Senate 
(18 May, 1804) ; the offer ratified by the French people in their primary 
assemblies ; coronation of Bonaparte as the Emperor Napoleon (2 Dec, 
1804); also crowned King of Italy at Milan (26 May, 1805). 

The institutions of the Empire : the Imperial Court ; increased im- 
portance of the Senate and Council of State ; highly centralized form 
of administration established under the Empire. 

In the year in which Bonaparte became Emperor of the French the 
Emperor Francis II. declared the Austrian dominions an hereditary em- 
pire (11 Aug., 1804), and took the title of Francis I., Emperor of Austria 
(7 Dec); after the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine, the 
Emperor Francis resigned the title of Holy Roman Emperor and ab- 
solved the Princes of the Empire from their allegiance (6 Aug., 1806). 

Position of affairs in England at the recommencement of war with 
France : Addington, who had made the Treaty of Amiens, succeeded 
as Prime Minister by Pitt, who advocated a vigorous foreign policy (18 
May, 1804). 

Pitt's endeavors to form a third coalition against Napoleon ; Fred- 
erick William III. persisted in maintaining the strict neutrality by which 
Prussia had gained so much ; the Tsar Alexander I. of Russia person- 
ally admired Napoleon, but his court and people pressed him to side 
with England ; the execution of d'Enghien and Napoleon's treatment 



Austerlitz, Jena and Friedland. 195 

of his ambassador further impelled Alexander to join the coalition 
against France ; the Emperor Francis gladly entered the coalition ; 
Spain was the close ally of Napoleon, while of smaller countries, 
Sweden, under Gustavus IV., the Two Sicilies, and Portugal were favor- 
able to the coalition, and Denmark, to Napoleon. 

The campaign of 1805 : Napoleon unable to attempt the invasion of 
England because the French fleet could not command the Channel ; the 
scheme of Napoleon frustrated by the conduct of Admiral Villeneuve ; 
Nelson in command of the Channel ; Sir Robert Calder's action with 
the French fleet (22 July); the Austrians under Mack, before the declara- 
tion of war, occupied Ulm (Sept.) ; Napoleon, despairing of invading 
England, broke up his camp at Boulogne and invaded German}^ ; sur- 
render of Mack at Ulm (20 Oct.); victory of Trafalgar won by Nelson 
over the French and Spanish fleets (21 Oct.); Napoleon at Vienna ; a 
Russian army joined the Austrians ; Napoleon's victory over the Aus- 
trians and Russians at Austerlitz (2 Dec). 

The results of Austerlitz : by the Treaty of Pressburg (26 Dec.) Aus- 
tria ceded Venetia to the Kingdom of Italy, Istria and Dalmatia to Na- 
poleon, who governed them under Marmont as the Illyrian Provinces, 
and the Tyrol to Bavaria ; the Electors of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg 
given the title of King, and the Elector of Baden that of Grand Duke ; 
formation of the Confederation of the Rhine (12 July. 1806). 

Death of Pitt (23 Jan., 1806) ; Ministry of All the Talents (10 Feb., 
1806-25 Mar., 1807) ; death of Fox (13 Sept., 1S06). 

The campaign of 1806 ; the attitude of Prussia to Napoleon, and of 
Napoleon to Prussia ; influence of Queen Louisa upon Frederick Wil- 
liam III.; the Prussians defeated by Napoleon at Jena and by Davout 
(b. 1770, d. 1823) at Auerstadt (14 Oct.); occupation of Berlin (25 
Oct.) ; the French army invaded Poland, occupied Warsaw (28 Nov.) 
and went into winter quarters on the Russian frontier. 

The campaign of 1807 : battle of Eylau (S Feb.) ; close alliance 
formed between the Tsar Alexander and Frederick William III. of 
Prussia by the Treaty of Bartenstein (25 April) ; surrender of Dantzig 
to the French (24 May) ; Napoleon's victory over the Russians at 
Friedland (14 June). 

Interview between Napoleon and Alexander at Tilsit (25 June, 1807), 



196 The Peace of Tilsit, 1807. 

followed by the Peace of Tilsit (7 July, 1897); by this treaty Russia 
ceded the Ionian Islands, which had been under Russia control since 
1799, to France; Napoleon promised not to restore the independence of 
Poland, but created the part of Poland which Prussia had received in 
the second and third partitions into the Grand Duchy of Warsaw; the 
Elector Frederick Augustus of Saxony, to whom Napoleon had given 
the title of King of Saxony, made Grand Duke of Warsaw; Napoleon 
suggested to Alexander the resurrection of the Empires of the East 
and the West and advised him to extend his dominions at the expense 
of Sweden and Turkey. 

Napoleon made peace with Prussia (9 July, 1807), depriving Fred- 
erick William III. of Polish Prussia and of all Prussian territory to the 
west of the Elbe. 

After the Peace of Tilsit, Napoleon recognized that his sole remain- 
ing enemy was England ; progress of the war with England after the 
battle of Trafalgar ; triumph of the English fleet and blockade of the 
French coasts ; the English occupied Sicily, to which island Ferdinand 
IV. had fled before a French aru^ in 1805, and Sir John Stuart (b. 1759, 
d. 1815) defeated General Reynier at Maida (4 July, 1806); the English 
re-occupied the Cape of Good Hope (Jan., 1806), which had been restored 
to the Dutch by the Treaty of Amiens. 

Napoleon, being unable to attack England directly, resolved to ruin 
English commerce ; he issued the Berlin Decree (21 Nov., 1806) de- 
claring the British Islands in a state of blockade ; England replied by 
the Orders in Council (11 Nov., 1807), which Napoleon followed by the 
Milan Decree (17 Dec, 1807) declaring any ship touching at a British 
port lawful prize ; by the Treaty of Tilsit, Russia agreed to the Con- 
tinental Blockade ; effect of the blockade on English commerce, and on 
Napoleon's position in France and in Europe. 

The Duke of Portland became the English Prime Minister (31 Mar., 
1807), with Canning and Castlereagh as Secretaries of State. 

The Peace of Tilsit marked the zenith of Napoleon's power, but 
his splendor was most apparent during the Congress of Erfurt (Sept., 
1808). 

Authorities : For the history of the Empire, see Morse Stephens, Thiers, Thi- 
baudeau, Fournier and Lanfrey, cited under Lecture 62 ; for the personality of 



The Confederation of the Rhine. 197 

Napoleon, Taine, Napoleon ; Levy, Napoleon intime ; Masson, Napoleon et sa 
famille, Napoleon chez lui, and Napoleon et les femmes ; Bourrienne, Memoirs ; 
Meneval, Memoirs; for the outbreak of war with England, see Oscar Browning, 
England and Napoleon in 1803, being the Despatches of Lord Whitworth and 
others ; for the plots against Napoleon, Cadoudal, Georges de Cadoudal et la 
Chouannerie ; for the execution of Enghien, Welschinger, Le due d'Enghien ; 
for the relations between Napoleon and the Tsar Alexander, see Vandal, Alex- 
andre i er et Napoleon, and Tatischeff, Napoleon et le Tsar Alexandre d'apres des 
documents inedits ; for the campaigns of Austerlitz, Jena and Friedland, see the 
elaborate works of Jontini, and Mathieu Dumas, with the numerous books on 
and by the marshals, officers and soldiers of the Grande Aimee, among which may 
be especially noted Marbot, Memoirs, and Thiebault, Souvenirs; for the Continental 
Blockade, Ltmibroso, Napoleone e l'lnghilterra, Saggio sulle origini del blocco 
continentale ; Mahan, Influence of Sea.Power upon the French Revolution and 
Empire ; for the Imperial Court, see Madame de Remusat, Memoirs ; and, as the 
primary authority for the whole period, the Correspondence of Napoleon with his 
Lettres inedites, ed. Lecestre. An elaborate bibliography of books dealing with 
the period by Lumbroso is in course of publication. 



IvECTU RE 64. 



EUROPE DURING THE ASCENDENCY OF NAPOLEON. 

Napoleon, after the Treaty of Tilsit, destroyed the last relics of the 
Holy Roman Empire and reorganized Germany ; under his system the 
Confederation of the Rhine, of which he was entitled the Protector, be- 
came the chief power in Germany ; it consisted, when at its greatest 
extent, of thirty-seven reigning princes ; its population of 15,000,000 
Germans was bound to contribute 120,000 soldiers to the army of Na- 
poleon ; and its policy was conducted by a Diet, sitting at Frankfort, 
composed of two colleges, the College of Kings, including four kings 
and five grand dukes, and the College of Princes, including thirteen 
dukes and fifteen princes. 

The four kingdoms in the Confederation of the Rhine were Bavaria, 
Wurtemberg, Westphalia and Saxony ; the Kings of Bavaria and 
Wurtemberg allied their families with that of Napoleon and received 



198 Italy under Napoleon. 

their reward in extension of territory ; trie King of Saxony made Grand 
Duke of Warsaw and included in the Confederation from the impor- 
tance of his geographical position between Austria, Prussia and Russia ; 
the Kingdom of Westphalia created by Napoleon (18 Aug., 1807) from 
the dominions of Prussia to the west of the Elbe, with Hesse-Cassel, 
Brunswick, part of Hanover, etc., and conferred on Napoleon's youngest 
brother, Jerome Bonaparte (b. 1784, d. i860). 

The five grand duchies in the Confederation of the Rhine w T ere Baden ; 
Hesse- Darmstadt ; Berg, created by Napoleon and conferred by him on 
his brother-in-law, Joachim Murat (b. 1771, d. 1815) ; Frankfort, con- 
ferred on Dalberg (b. 1744, d. 1817), formerly Archbishop-Elector of 
Mayence ; and Wiirzburg, conferred on the Grand Duke Ferdinand, 
formerly ruler of Tuscany. 

Effect of the new organization in Germany ; the French system of 
centralized administration and of military conscription everywhere in- 
troduced ; serfdom and other feudal abuses abolished ; the codified law 
of France introduced into Westphalia and Berg ; the Knights of the 
Empire deprived of their sovereign rights ; the petty dukes, counts 
and princes whose territories lay within those of the reigning princes 
were mediatized, that is to say, lost their immediate sovereignty, while 
retaining their titles and rank as a class of privileged aristocracy. 

Effect of these measures : Germany became a confederation of more 
or less powerful states instead of a collection of petty feudal princi- 
palities. 

Napoleon's Italian policy : he appointed his step-son, Eugene de 
Beauharnais (b. 1781, d. 1824^, Viceroy of the Kingdom of Italy, which 
comprised the former Cisalpine Republic, with the addition, after the 
Treaty of Pressburg, of Venetia ; Napoleon kept Piedmont as part of 
the French dominions, and annexed Parma (9 Oct., 1802), the Ligurian 
Republic (4 June, 1805), Etruria or Tuscany (10 Dec, 1807), and event- 
ually Rome (13 Dec, 1S10) directly to France, giving his sister Elisa 
the title of Grand Duchess of Tuscany and Princess of Lucca, and his 
sister Pauline that of Duchess of Guastalla ; the relations of Napoleon 
with the Pope ; arrest of Pius VII. (6 July, 1809) ; the Kingdom of 
Naples conferred upon Napoleon's brother, Joseph Bonaparte (30 
March, 1S06), and on Murat (15 July, 1808 ; great reforms accomplished 
in Italy, but failure of Napoleon to recognize the principle of nationality. 



Napoleon'' 's Power at its Height. 199 

Napoleon and the Protestant Netherlands : further change in the 
constitution of the Batavian Republic ; Schimmelpenninck (b. 1761, d. 
1825) made Grand Pensionary (22 March, 1805); L,ouis Bonaparte 
made King of Holland (24 May, 1806) ; dislike of the Dutch for the 
Continental Blockade ; Holland annexed to Napoleon's dominions (9 
July, 1810). 

The Valais annexed, as the department of the Simplon, to Napoleon's 
empire (13 Dec, 1810). 

Neufchatel, Benevento and Ponte Corvo granted by Napoleon as 
sovereign principalities, feudatory to himself, to Berthier, Talleyrand 
and Bernadotte (1806). 

Denmark during the ascendency of Napoleon : Napoleon's scheme 
for seizing the Danish fleet ; the English, hearing of this scheme, bom- 
barded Copenhagen and seized the Danish fleet (2-7 Sept., 1807); 
friendship of Frederick VI. of Denmark for Napoleon. 

Sweden during the ascendency of Napoleon : Gustavus IV., an enemy 
of Napoleon and ally of England ; after the Treaty of Tilsit the French 
under Brune occupied Swedish Pomerania ; the Tsar Alexander con- 
quered Finland (1808); insanity of Gustavus IV.; his attack upon 
Denmark; dethroned (13 March) and his uncle, the former regent, 
made king (5 June, 1809); Bernadotte (b. 1764, d. 1844), one of Napo- 
leon's marshals, elected Prince Royal of Sweden and heir to the throne 
(5 Nov., 1810). 

The Turks during the ascendency of Napoleon : the Sultan Selim 
III. refused to enter Pitt's coalition against Napoleon (1805), and an 
English expedition under Duckworth was sent against him (1807); 
overthrow of Selim (31 May 1807); after an interval Mahmud II. be- 
came Sultan (28 July, 1808); his vigor and ability; inclined to the side 
of France, but disliked the establishment of the French in the Illyrian 
Provinces; the Tsar Alexander attacked the Turks (1809); the Russians 
occupied Moldavia and Wallachia (1810), and crossed the Danube (181 1). 

The greatest extension of Napoleon's empire attained by the annex- 
ation of the districts along the northern coasts of Germany from the 
borders of Holland to the mouth of the Weser, including Bremen, 
Hamburg, and L,iibeck (13 Dec, 1810); these districts were partly taken 
from Westphalia and Berg, and partly consisted of Oldenburg and three 



200 JVapoieo?i' s Administration. 

petty states of the Confederation of the Rhine ; this annexation was • 
caused by the difficulty of maintaining the Continental Blockade. 

At this time Napoleon's empire was divided into 130 departments, 
extending from Rome to L,iibeck ; the organization and administration 
of these departments. 

Napoleon's administration when at the height of his power : excel- 
lence of his civil service ; his ministers and the Council of State ; sup- 
pression of the Tribunate (19 Aug., 1807); growing importance of the 
police department ; Fouche (b. 1763, d. 1820), Minister of Police (1804- 
10), and Savary (1810-14); organization of the army, and services of 
Clarke, Minister of War ; Napoleon's legal reforms ; the codes ; his 
financial reforms ; his reforms in education ; the formation of the Uni- 
versity of France (17 March, 1808). 

Napoleon's belief in the hereditary principle ; his new nobility ; his 
desire for an heir ; resolution to divorce his wife, the Empress Josephine 
(b. 1763, d. 1814). 

Failure of Napoleon to appreciate the forces working against him at 
the height of his power ; he had failed to ruin England, in spite of all 
his efforts ; he had roused the national spirit, which had made France 
great, against him in Spain and in Germany; the Grande Armee which 
had won his victories was being destroyed, and the vacancies in its 
ranks filled by foreigners and young French conscripts. 

Authorities : Upon Germany during the Napoleonic period, see Rambaud, La 
Domination francaise en Allemagne (1804-11); Beck, Zxxr Verfassungsgeschichte 
des Rheinbunds ; Lucchesini, Sulle cause e gli effetti della confederazione rhenana ; 
Perthes, Politische Zustande und Personen zur Zeit der franzosischer Herrschaft ; 
Dumoutin-Eckart, Bayern unter dem Ministerium Montgelas ; Montgelas, Denk- 
wiirdigkeiten (1799-1817); PJister, Konig Friedrich von Wiirttemberg und seine 
Zeit; Normann-Ehrenfels, Denkwiirdigkeiten (1756-1817); Kleinschmidt, Ge- 
schichte des Konigreichs Westfalen ; Du Casse, Memoires et correspondance du 
roi Jerome ; Beugnot, Memoires ; Goecke, Das Grossherzogthum Berg unter Joachim 
Murat ; Beaulieu-Margonnay, Karl von Dalberg und seine Zeit ; Kramer, Karl 
Theodor, Reichsfreiherr von Dalberg ; Bockenheimer, Geschichte der Stadt Mainz, 
wahrend der zweiten franztisischen Herrschaft ; and Hesse, Geschichte der Stadt 
Bonn, wahrend der franzosischen Herrschaft. Upon Italy, see Vaudoncourt, 
Histoire politique et militaire du Prince Eugene Napoleon ; Lafolie, Histoire de 
1' administration du royaume d'ltalie pendant la domination francaise; Eugene de 
Beauharnais, Memoires et correspondance, ed. by Du Casse; and Melzi, Memoire. 



Napoleon' 1 s Interference in the Peninsula. 201 

On the arrest of the Pope, see Artaud, Histoire du Pape Pie VII. ; Crttineau-Joly, 
Memoires du Cardinal Consalvi ; Pacca, Memoires historiques ;. Combier, M6- 
moires du General Radet, and Maury, Correspondance et memoires. On Holland, 
see Jorissen, Napoleon I et le roi Eouis ; and Louis Bonaparte, Documents his- 
toriques et reflexions sur le gouvernement de la Hollande. On Sweden, Svederus, 
Schwedens Politik und Kriege (1808-1814). On the Code, /a*:, Bonaparte et le 
Code Civil. 



LECTURE 65. 



THE OVERTHROW OF THE POWER OF NAPOLEON. 

The struggle between England and Napoleon : the policies repre- 
sented by Castlereagh (b. 1769, d. 1822) and Canning (b. 1770, d. 1827), 
the latter desiring to raise national insurrections against Napoleon, the 
former to make coalitions and to act directly against the French with 
English armies ; duel between Castlereagh and Canning (21 Sept., 
1809); Lord Wellesley (b. 1760, d. 1842), director of English foreign 
policy (1809-18 1 2); capture by the English of the remaining colonial 
possessions of France and Holland, Martinique (23 Feb., 1809), Guade- 
loupe (6 Feb., 1810) and the Mauritius (2 Dec, 1810), and Java (18 
Sept., 1811). 

Napoleon's resolution to attack Portugal, because the Prince- Regent 
declined to join in the Continental Blockade ; by the Treaty of Fon- 
tainebleau with Spain (27 Oct., 1807) he arranged for the division of 
Portugal ; a French army under Junot invaded Portugal ; flight of the 
Prince-Regent to Brazil; Junot entered Lisbon (30 Nov., 1807), 
occupied the whole of Portugal, and declared that the House of Bra- 
ganza had ceased to reign (1 Feb., 1808). 

Napoleon's interference in the affairs in Spain : the people of Madrid 
attacked Godoy, the Queen's lover, and supported Prince Ferdinand, 
the heir to the throne ; the royal family of Spain appealed to Napoleon 
and proceeded to France ; Charles IV. ceded his throne to Napoleon, 
who proclaimed his brother Joseph, King of Spain (6 June, 1808); a 
French army entered Spain to support Joseph and occupied Madrid ; 



202 Vimeiro, Corunna and Wagram. 

general insurrection of the Spaniards ; surrender of 18,000 French 
soldiers to the Spaniards at Baylen (20 July, 1808); the English minis- 
tr} r assisted the Spanish insurgents with money and arms. 

The Portuguese in insurrection against the French ; the English min- 
istry sent an army to their help under Sir Arthur Wellesley (b. 1769, 
d. 1852), who won the battles of Rolica and Vimeiro (17, 21 Aug., 
1808); by the Convention of Cintra (30 Aug.) Junot agreed to evacuate 
Portugal. 

Napoleon in person invaded Spain, and occupied Madrid (4 Dec, 
1808); Sir John Moore (b. 1761, d. 1809) with the English army ad- 
vanced from Portugal to Salamanca to save Andalusia; retreat of Sir 
John Moore to Corunna ; battle of Corunna (16 Jan., 1809). 

The difficulties of Napoleon in the Peninsula and the promise of 
support from England caused the Emperor Francis to believe the time 
propitious for a fresh war ; unpopularity of the French in Germany ; 
Napoleon's contempt for the popular feeling against him ; Stadion (b. 
1763, d. 1824), who had become State Chancellor of Austria in 1806, 
desired to make Austria the representative of this German national feel- 
ing ; the services of Gentz (b. 1764, d. 1832); re-organization of the 
Austrian army by the Archduke Charles. 

Campaign of 1809 : the Archduke Charles invaded Bavaria, and the 
Archduke John, Italy ; Napoleon entered Germany, defeated the Arch- 
duke Charles at Abensberg and Eckmiihl (20, 22 Apr.) and occupied 
Vienna (13 May); the battle of Aspern or Essling (21-22 May); Na- 
poleon shut up in the island of Lobau ; the Tyrolese insurrection under 
Hofer ; Napoleon, joined by reinforcements, defeated the Austrians at 
Wagram (6 July). 

By the treaty of Vienna or Schbnbrunn (14 Oct., 1809) Austria 
ceded Trieste, Carniola, and most of Croatia to Napoleon, who added 
these districts to the Illyrian Provinces; Austria also ceded Salzburg to 
Bavaria, Northern Galicia, including Cracow, which she had taken in 
the final partition of Poland in 1795, to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, 
and the Circle of Tarnopol in Southern Galicia to Russia. 

Causes of the failure of Austria to arouse German national feeling ; 
Stadion suceeded by Metternich (b. 1773, d. 1859); Napoleon married 
to the Archduchess Marie Louise (b. 1791, d. 1847), daughter of the 
Emperor Francis (2 Apr., 18 10). 



The Reorganization of Prussia. 203 

The English ministry resolved to pursue the war vigorously on land 
against Napoleon ; failure of the expedition to Walcheren (Aug., 1809); 
successes in the war in the Peninsula ; gallant defense of Saragossa by 
the Spaniards ; though the Spanish armies were defeated, their guerilla 
warfare reduced the power of the French ; Arthur Wellesley, afterwards 
Lord Wellington, placed in command of the English army in the Pe- 
ninsula ; his capture of Oporto (12 May, 1809); his victory at Talavera 
(27-28 July); Wellington held the lines of Torres Vedras and repulsed 
a French invasion of Portugal under Massena (1810-1811) ; battles of 
Fuentes de Onor (5 May, 181 1), and Albuera (16 May); Wellington's 
capture of Ciudad Rodrigo (19 Jan., 1812), and Badajoz (6 Apr.), and 
defeat of Marmont at Salamanca (22 July); Joseph Bonaparte evacuated 
Madrid (10 Aug.); the English forced to retreat from Burgos (21 Oct.), 
and Joseph recovered Madrid for the last time (2 Nov.). 

The growth of the national spirit in Germany : the Germans looked 
to Prussia to lead them ; the Tugenbund. 

The re-organization of Prussia : the ministry of Stein (b. 1757, d. 
1 831) ; he abolished serfdom and introduced other reforms ; the war 
ministry of Scharnhorst (b. 1755, d. 1813); he passed the youth of 
Prussia through the army, and in the place of conscription adopted 
universal military service ; Napoleon obtained the dismissal of Stein 
(24 Nov., 1808) and of Scharnhorst (June, 18 10); the ministry of Har- 
denberg (1810-1822); he completed the work of Stein by making the 
former serfs owners of their holdings (14 Sept., 181 1) ; foundation of 
the University of Berlin (1810); assistance rendered by William von 
Humboldt (b. 1767, d. 1835); Frederick William III. forced to sign an 
offensive and defensive alliance with Napoleon (24 Feb., 18 12). 

Growing disagreement between Napoleon and the Tsar Alexander : 
its causes ; Napoleon's resolution to invade Russia ; Castlereagh, who 
returned to office (28 Feb., 1812), offered to aid Russia ; through Eng- 
lish mediation Russia made peace with the Turks at Bucharest (28 
May, 1812) ; Russia signed the Treaty of Abo with Sweden (5 Apr., 
1 812) by which Bernadotte promised to aid Russia against Napoleon 
and to cede Finland in exchange for Norway. 

Outbreak of war between England and the United States (18 June, 
1812). 



204 Overthrow of Napoleon. 

Campaign of 1812 : Napoleon invaded Russia (May); retreat of the 
Russians ; battle of Borodino (7 Sept.); Napoleon occupied Moscow 
(14 Sept ) ; the retreat from Moscow ; almost complete destruction of 
the French army. 

Campaign of 18 13 : during the retreat from Moscow the Prussian con- 
tingent under York abandoned the French army (30 Dec, 18 12) ; 
Prussia declared war against France (16 Mar., 1813); Napoleon rallied 
his army and won the battles of Liitzen (2 May) and Bautzen (20 May); 
Austria signed the Convention of Reichenbach (27 June), and promised 
to join the Allies, if Napoleon refused the terms offered to him ; Congress 
of Prague; Austria declared war against Napoleon (12 Aug.); the 
French under Oudinot and Macdonald defeated by Bernadotte and 
Bliicher (b. 1742, d. 1819) at Gross-Beeren and the Katzbach (23, 25 
Aug.); Napoleon defeated the Austrians at Dresden (26-27 Aug.) ; sur- 
render of Vandamme to the Russians at Kulm (30 Aug.); the Treaty of 
Toplitz between Austria and Bavaria (19 Sept.) ; Bavaria and Wiirtem- 
berg deserted Napoleon ; great defeat of the French at Leipzig (16-19 
Oct.); defeat of the Bavarians at Hanau (30 Oct.); Napoleon withdrew 
from Germany ; general rising of the Germans against the French. 

Campaign of 1813 in the Peninsula : Wellington defeated the French 
at Vittoria (21 June) and invaded France (7 Oct.). 

The allied armies reach the Rhine ; negotiations with Napoleon ; 
the Proposals of Frankfort (9 Nov., 18 13) ; attitude towards Napoleon 
and France of the Tsar Alexander, Metternich and Castlereagh. 

Campaign of 1 814 in France: the Allies invaded France (31 Dec, 1813); 
Napoleon's victories ; the Congress of Chatillon (3 Feb.-i9 Mar.) ; 
Frederick VI. of Denmark ceded Norway to Sweden in exchange for 
Swedish Pomerania by the Treaty of Kiel (14 Jan.) ; the Dutch insur- 
rection ; Carnot's defence of Antwerp ; the position in Italy ; Bugene 
de Beauharnais remained faithful, but Murat negotiated with the Allies; 
the English under Bentinck occupied Genoa (21 Apr.) ; attitude of 
France towards Napoleon ; the nation refused to rise in his defense ; 
the Allies signed the Treaty of Chaumont (1 Mar.); Napoleon's last 
battles; the Allies occupied Paris (31 Mar.); abdication of Napoleon at 
Fontainebleau (6 Apr.). 

Causes of the fall of Napoleon. 



The Restoration. 205 

Authorities : On Napoleon's interference in Spain and Portugal and on the 
history of the Peninsular War, the best small hook is S/iand, The War in the Pen- 
insula ; see Murat, Murat en Espagne ; Du Casse, Memoires et Correspondance du 
Roi Joseph ; Wellington, Despatches ; Napier, History of the Peninsular War ; 
Toreno, Historia del levantamiento, guerra y revolucion de Espana ; and Gomez de 
Arteche, Reinado del Carlos IV., and Guerra della Independencia ; for the campaign 
of Wagram, see Pelel, Memoires sur la guerre de 1809; Hormayr, Geschichte An- 
dreas Hofer, and Angeli, Erzherzog Carl von CEvsterreich als Feldherr und Heeres- 
organisator ; for the reorganization of Prussia, see Seeley, Life of Stein ; Pertz, Das 
Leben des Ministers Freiherrn vom Stein ; Ranke, Denkwiirdigkeiten des Fiirsten 
von Hardenberg ; Cavaignac, Formation de la Prusse contemporaine, vol. 2.; Stern, 
Abhandlungen und Aktenstiicke zur Geschichte der preussischen Reformzeit ; and 
Lehmann, Scharnhorst, Der Tugenbund, and Knesebeck und Schon ; for Napo- 
leon's campaign in Russia, see Segur, Histoire de Napoleon et de la Grande Arm£e 
pendant l'annee 1812 ; for the campaign in Germany of 1813, and the rising of Ger- 
many against Napoleon, see Berlin, Campagne de 1813 ; Droysen, Das Leben des 
Grafen York von Wartenburg ; Pertz, Das Leben des Grafen Neithardt von 
Gneisenau ; Oncken, Gjsterreich und Preussen im Befreiungskriege; Droysen, Vor- 
lesungen iiber die Freiheitskriege ; for the Dutch insurrection see Juste, Le souleve- 
ment de la Hollande en 1813 ; for the defensive campaign of 1814 in France, see 
Honssaye, 1814; Didot, Royaute ou Empire : la France en 1814 ; Bertin, La Cam- 
pagne de 1S14; and. Fain, Manuscrit de 1814 ; and for the diplomatic proceedings of 
the period, Alison, Lives of Lord Castlereagh and Sir Charles Stewart; Castlereagh, 
Correspondence ; Mettemich, Memoirs ; and Vitrolles, Memoires. 



LECTURE 66 



THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA. 

The abdication of Napoleon was followed by the Provisional Treaty 
of Paris (11 April, 1814) assigning to him the island of Elba and an 
income, and to the Empress Marie Louise the duchies of Parma and 
Piacenza, 

The provisional government of France under the guidance of Talley- 
rand accepted Louis XVIII. as King ; on his arrival he issued the De- 
claration oi Saint-Ouen (2 May), promising representative government, 
liberty of worship and of the press, responsibility of ministers, guaran- 



206 The Congress of Vienna. 

tee of property acquired during the Revolution, etc., which were after- 
wards embodied in the Charter (4 June, 1814). 

By the First Treaty of Paris (30 May, 1814) France was reduced to the 
limits of 1792, with the addition of Avignon, and other districts within 
these limits, and of part of Savoy ; she received back all her colonies, 
except the Mauritius, Saint Lucia and Tobago, which were ceded to 
England. 

It was agreed that a congress of representatives of the states of Eu- 
rope should be held at Vienna to dispose of the territories on the left 
bank of the Rhine, taken from France, and in general to settle the 
affairs of Europe. 

The Congress of Vienna met on 1 Nov. 1814; it was attended by 
most of the sovereigns of Europe, and those who were not present sent 
special envoys. 

The most important ambassadors were Metternich for Austria, Hard- 
enberg for Prussia, Castlereagh for England, and Razumovski and 
Nesselrode for Russia ; these representatives of the four victorious 
powers arrogated to themselves the right to arrange the decisions of the 
Congress. 

Arrival of Talleyrand as the representative of France ; his great diplo- 
matic campaign ; he stood forth as the advocate of legitimacy, and as 
the defender of smaller powers ; he adroitly made use of the dissensions 
between the four great powers. 

The chief political questions at issue : (1) the Tsar Alexander de- 
sired the whole of Poland and Frederick William III. of Prussia the 
whole of Saxony, whose king had remained faithful to Napoleon ; (2) 
the disposition of the territories on the left bank of the Rhine ; (3) the 
treatment of Italy, especially of Murat, who had abandoned Napoleon; 
Talleyrand's attitude upon these questions. 

In order to oppose the claims of Russia and Prussia, Austria, Eng- 
land and France signed a secret treaty of alliance (3 Jan., 1815). 

Eventually it was settled that Prussia should receive Lusatia, being 
about two-fifths of the Kingdom of Saxony, and Russia the greater part 
of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, including the city of Warsaw ; Prussia 
recovered from the Grand Duchy the province of Posen, with Thorn 
and Dantzig, while Austria recovered the Circle of Tarnopol in Southern 
Galicia. and Cracow was made a free state. 



The Congress of Vienna. 207 

In order to establish strong powers upon the Rhine to curb France, 
Holland and Belgium were united as the Kingdom of the Netherlands 
and granted to the Prince of Orange, who was also made Grand Duke 
of Luxemburg ; the districts comprising the former electorates of 
Treves and Cologne, etc., were granted to Prussia ; the districts farther 
south to Bavaria, in compensation for the loss of Salzburg and the 
Tyrol, and the fortress of Mayence to Hesse- Darmstadt, to be garri- 
soned by the Germanic Confederation. 

The re-arrangement of Italy : Lornbardy and Venetia were given to 
Austria ; Genoa was added to the Kingdom of Sardinia, in which the 
succession was fixed in the Carignano line ; Tuscany and Modena were 
restored to their former rulers, both Austrian princes ; Parma, Piacenza 
and Guastalla were given to the Empress Marie Louise for her life, with 
succession to the rightful heir, who was for the time made Grand Duke of 
Lucca ; the States of the Church were restored to the Pope, and the ques- 
tion of retaining Murat on the throne of Naples remained unsettled until 
he defied Austria and endeavored to summon Italy to arms ; after the 
defeat of Murat at Tolentino (3 May, 1815) Naples was restored to Fer- 
dinand IV., who took the title of Ferdinand I., King of the Two Sicilies. 

The districts on the eastern coast of the Adriatic, which Napoleon 
had governed as the Illyrian Provinces, were annexed by Austria. 

In the North, Sweden was confirmed in the possession of Norway, 
ceded to her by Denmark by the Treaty of Kiel, but Denmark lost 
Swedish Pomerauia and received instead the Duchy of Lauenburg. 

In Germany, Prussia regained her acquisitions of 1803, with Swedish 
Pomerania, the greater part of the Kingdom of Westphalia, and Rhenish 
Prussia ; Hanover received East Friesland and other districts; and the 
mediatization of the petty states of Germany was maintained. 

England, in addition to the colonial gains made by the Treaty of 
Amiens, retained the Cape of Good Hope, the Mauritius, Malta, Heligo- 
land, and the Ionian Islands, but restored Martinique to the French 
and Java to the Dutch ; Castlereagh's chief preoccupation at Vienna 
was, however, to secure the abolition of the negro slave trade. 

Peace signed between England and the United States at Ghent (24 
Dec, 1814). 

Before its work was completed, the Congress of Vienna was startled 



2oa The Hundred Days. 

by the news that Napoleon had left Elba and was again master of France ; 
it, therefore, hurried through the rest of its work by reorganizing Ger- 
many and Switzerland. 

The Germanic Confederation took the place of the Confederation of 
the Rhine ; it consisted of thirty-five states, in addition to Austria, 
Prussia, Denmark and the Netherlands, namely : the four kingdoms of 
Bavaria, Hanover, Saxony and Wiirtemberg, the seven grand duchies 
of Baden, Hesse-Cassel or Electoral Hesse, Hesse-Darmstadt, Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg, and Saxe- Weimar, 
nine duchies, eleven principalities, and the four free cities of Bremen, 
Frankfort, Hamburg and Liibeck ; the affairs of the Confederation were 
entrusted to a Diet (Bundestag) presided over by Austria and consist- 
ing of an Ordinary Assembly of seventeen and a General Assembly of 
sixty-nine members. 

The Swiss Confederation was guaranteed neutrality by the powers of 
Europe ; three new cantons, Geneva, Neufchatel and the Valais were 
added ; entire independence was given to the individual cantons and 
presidency of the Federal Diet was reserved to Zurich, Berne and Lu- 
cerne in turn. 

Importance of the work of the Congress of Vienna ; it showed a re- 
action to 1 8th century ideas in trampling on the ideas of nationality and 
of the sovereignty of the people. 

The story of the Hundred Days : unpopularity and unwise conduct 
of Louis XVIII. ; return of French prisoners of war from Germany and 
Russia; Napoleon escaped from Elba and landed in France (i Mar., 
1815); he reached Paris (20 Mar.); flight of Louis XVIII.; Napoleon 
promised to establish representative institutions ; the Additional Act 
(23 Apr.); his endeavors to raise France against the Allies ; defeated by 
the English and Prussians at Waterloo (18 June); surrender of Napo- 
leon to Captain Maitland (15 July); sent to St. Helena; the Allied 
armies occupied Paris (6 July); restoration of Louis XVIII. 

By the Second Treaty of Paris (20 Nov., 1815) France lost the part of 
Savoy granted to her in 18 14 and other rectifications of her frontier; 
she had to restore to their former owners the works of art accumulated 
in Paris ; she was forced to pay a war contribution of 700,000,000 francs 
and to maintain an army of 150,000 troops of the Allies in possession of 
her eastern fortresses for five years. 



The Holy Alliance. 209 

Authorities t For the history and acts of the Congress of Vienna, see Flassan, 
Histoire du Congres de Vienne ; Kltiber, Akten des Wiener Congresses ; Angeberg, 
Le Congres de Vienne et les Traites de 1815 ; De Pradt, Le Congrds de Vienne; 
Lagarde, Fetes et souvenirs du Congres de Vienne ; Sorel, Les Traites de 1815 ; 
Schoell, Recueil de pieces officielles relatives au Congres de Vienne ; Talleyrand, 
Memoires ; Pallain, Correspondance inedite du Prince de Talleyrand et du Roi 
Louis XVIII. pendant le Congres de Vienne ; Metternich, Memoirs ; Alison, Lives 
of Lord Castlereagh and Sir Charles Stewart ; Castlereagh, Correspondence ; Wel- 
lington, Supplementary Despatches ; Ranke, Hardenberg ; Munster, Depeschen 
vom Wiener Congress ; Pictet, Biographie, travaux et correspondance de C. Pictet 
de Rochemont, and Pozzo di Borgo, Correspondance. For the Hundred Days, 
see the books on Napoleon already cited, with Houssaye, 1815 ; Constant, Me- 
moires sur les Cent Jours ; Vitrolles, Memoires ; and Rochechouart, Souvenirs ; 
and for the campaign of Waterloo, Sibome, History of the War in France and Bel- 
gium in 1815 ; Ropes, The Campaign of Waterloo ; Gardner, Waterloo ; Chesney, 
Waterloo Lectures ; Ollech, Geschichte des Feldzuges von 1815 ; La Tour d' Au- 
vergne, Waterloo ; and Charras, Histoire de la campagne de 1815. 



LECTURE 67 



THF HOLY ALLIANCE. 

After the signature of the Second Treaty of Paris the Tsar Alexander 
of Russia, influenced by Madame de Kriidener, proposed the formation 
of a Holy Alliance declaring the obligations of monarchs to the Chris- 
tian religion; it was signed by the Emperor Francis of Austria and King 
Frederick William III. of Prussia (26 Sept., 1815), but not by the Prince 
Regent of England ; the objects and aims, secret and avowed, of the 
Holy Alliance. 

Metternich recognized as the leading statesman of the Holy Alliance ; 
his fear of democratic principles greater than his attachment to religion; 
his intimacy with Castlereagh ; he proposed to preserve the peace of 
Europe and the force of government by frequent congresses of repre- 
sentatives of the Great Powers, which should consult and act together. 

Metternich's Austrian policy the reverse of that of Joseph II. ■ he be- 
lieved in maintaining authority by preserving the diversity of language 
and law in the different provinces of the Austrian Empire. 



210 Europe, 1 8 15-18 20. 

The internal policy of the Tsar Alexander I. : his attempt to establish 
constitutional government as King of Poland and Grand Duke of Fin- 
land ; his friendship with Adam Czartoryski (b. 1770, d. 1861), and 
other Polish patriots ; his interest in the Eastern Question, and desire 
to overthrow the power of the Turks ; he encouraged the Greeks, espe- 
cially through Capo d'Istria, in their desire for independence. 

The government of L,ouis XVIII. in France : the system of the Char- 
ter ; establishment of responsible government on the English model ; 
the two Chambers ; the two parties, Royalists and Constitutionalists ; 
suppression of the liberty of the press ; repression of the partisans of the 
Revolution ; the White Terror ; the first administration of the Due de 
Richelieu (1815-1818). 

The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle ; agreement of the Allies to evacuate 
France (9 Oct., 18 18). 

The spread of constitutional principles in Germany : indignation of 
the Young German party at the refusal of the Congress of Vienna to 
recognize the principle of nationality or the establishment of represent- 
ative institutions ; the spirit of the universities ; the Burschenschaft. 

Certain German rulers, notably the Kings of Bavaria and Wiirtem- 
berg and the Grand Dukes of Baden and Saxe- Weimar, granted repre- 
sentative constitutions to their states; Frederick William III. of Prussia 
had promised a constitution in 18 15 and took steps in that direction 
in 18 18 ; the work of William von Humboldt ; Metternich's opposi- 
tion to the liberal movement in Germany. 

The murder of Kotzebue (23 Mar., 1819) ; its effect on Germany; 
Frederick William III. dismissed Humboldt and did not issue his 
promised constitution ; riots in Germany ; Metternich took advantage 
of these risings to oppose liberal ideas ; the Congress of Carlsbad 
(Aug., 1819) ; the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna (15 May, 1820), 
strengthening the power of the Diet of the Germanic Confederation to 
interfere in the different states ; the police measures taken against Ger- 
man liberalism. 

The demand for representative institutions and for the recognition of 
liberal principles stigmatized by Metternich as Jacobinism ; the Holy 
Alliance, including the Tsar Alexander, induced to declare against 
liberalism. 



Insurrections in Spain and Italy. 211 

Secret societies formed by the supporters of liberal principles all over 
Europe, in relation with each other ; in Germany and in Italy their 
cause associated with the spirit of nationality. 

Insurrection in Spain (1820) caused by the reactionary government of 
Ferdinand VII.; the Spanish colonies in Central and South America 
were fighting for their independence ; San Martin, Francia, Bolivar and 
Iturbide ; the Spaniards demanded the Constitution of 181 2 ; Ferdinand 
VII. appeared to yield, but appealed for help against his people to the 
Holy Alliance ; Catalonia and Navarre opposed to the reforms of the 
Cortes. 

The situation in Italy : policy of the Italian governments ; restoration 
of the Society of Jesus by the Pope (7 Aug., 1814) ; the movement for 
reform, both democratic and national ; the Carbonari ; Pepe (b. 1783, 
d. 1855) seized Naples (July, 1820) and forced Ferdinand I. to adopt a 
liberal constitution ; democratic rising in Piedmont (Mar., 1821); part 
played by Charles Albert, Prince of Carignano ; abdication of Victor 
Emmanuel I., King of Sardinia. 

Metternich laid the question of the liberal movement in Italy before 
a congress of the powers at Troppau (Oct.-Dec, 1820) and at Laybach 
(Jan. -May, 1821); Austria authorized to interfere ; suppression of the 
liberal movements in Naples and Piedmont by Austrian troops. 

Suicide of Castlereagh (12 Aug., 1822); succeeded by Canning as 
English foreign minister; Canning's liberal ideas and dislike of Met- 
ternich; Castlereagh's death the first blow at the solidarity of the 
Great Powers in the s} ? stem of governing Europe by congresses. 

Attitude of France towards the other powers ; policy of Louis XVIII. ; 
administration of Decazes (1818-20) and of Richelieu (1820-21) ; forma- 
tion of an ultra- Royalist ministry under Villele (15 Dec, 1821). 

Meeting of the Congress of Verona (Oct., 1822), summoned to deal 
with the revolutionary movement in Spain ; attitude taken by Canning, 
who declared the intention of England to recognize the independence of 
the South American republics and warned the powers not to interfere 
in Portugal ; the Congress requested France to re-establish the authority 
of Ferdinand VII. 

A French army invaded Spain (7 Apr., 1823), occupied Madrid (19 
May) and suppressed the Constitutional party in Spain ; unpopularity 



212 Disruption of the Holy Alliance. 

of this action among the French liberals ; plots formed against the 
Bourbons. 

Death of Louis XVIII. (16 Sept., 1824); accession of his brother, 
the Comte d'Artois, as Charles X. (b. 1757, d. 1836); his ultra- Royalist 
ideas ; Villele retained in power. 

Death of the Tsar Alexander I. (1 Dec, 1825) ; the character 
of his influence on European politics since the Congress of Vienna ; 
the Holy Alliance broken up by his death ; determination of his suc- 
cessor, Nicholas L, to carry out his own policy without consulting 
the other powers ; Metternich remained the director of the policy of 
Austria and Prussia, but England, owing to the death of Castlereagh, 
and Russia, owing to the death of Alexander, were no longer submis- 
sive to his leadership. 

Authorities : For the diplomatic history of this period, see Debidour, Histoire 
diplomatique de l'Europe ; Seignobos, Histoire politique de l'Europe contempo- 
raine (1814-96) ; Fyffe, History of Modern Europe ; Stern, Geschichte Europas, 
seit i8r5 ; Muhlenbeck, Etudes sur les origines de la Samte- Alliance ; Metternich, 
Memoirs ; Mazade, Un Chancelier d'Ancien Regime, regne diplomatique de M. de 
Metternich ; Castlereagh, Correspondence; Canning, Speeches ; Stapleton, Political 
Life of George Canning, and Canning and his Times ; De Maislre, Memoires polit- 
iques et correspondance diplomatique ; Pozzo di Borgo, Correspondance diploma- 
tique ; Maggiolo, Pozzo di Borgo ; and Ranke, Hardenberg ; for special Congresses, 
see De Pradt, L'Europe apres le Congres d'Aix-la-Chapelle, and Le Congres de 
Carlsbad ; Bignon, Le Congres de Troppau ; and Chateaubriand, Le Congres de 
Verone ; for the history of the Restoration in Prance, see Viel-Castel, Histoire de 
la Restauration; Duvergier de Hauranne, Histoire du gouvernement parlementaire 
en Prance (1814-48) ; Dulaure and Auguis, Histoire de la Revolution depuis 1814 
jusq'a.1830; Cisternes, Le due de Richelieu (1818-21) ; Crousax-Cretet, Le due 
de Richelieu ; Rochechouart. Souvenirs ; Hyde de Nouville, Memoires ; Barante, 
Souvenirs ; Pasquier, Memoires ; Foy, Discours ; Marcellus, Souvenirs diploma- 
tiques ; Ferrand, Memoires: and Villele. Memoires; for Germany, see Gervinus, 
Geschichte des Neunzehuten Jahrhunderts ; Treitschke, Deutsche Geschichte im 
Neunzehnten Jahrhundert ; Pfister, Konig Friedrich von Wiirtemberg und seine 
Zeit ; on Italy, see Bianchi, Storia documentata della diplomazia Europea in 
Italia ; Nisco. Storia d'ltalia (1815-30) ; Stillman, The Union of Ita±y (1815-95); 
Tivaroni, Storia critica del Risorgimento Italiano ; Collelta, Istoria di Reame di 
Napoli ; Pepe, Relation des evenements politiques et militaires de Naples en 1820 
et 1821, and Memoires historiques, politiques, et militaires sur la revolution du 
royaume de Naples ; and Costa de Beauregard, Lajeunesse du roi Charles Albert; 



The Eastern Question. 213 

for Spain, see Hubbard, Histoire contemporaine de l'Espagne ; Hugo, Histoire de 
la guerre d'Espagne en 1823 ; and Martignac, Essai historique sur la revolution 
d'Espagne ; and for Russia, Ford, life and Letters of Madame de Kriidener ; La 
correspondance entre le Tsar Alexandre et le Prince Adam Czartoryski ; Schnitz- 
ler, Histoire intime de la Russie sous les Empereurs Alexandre et Nicolas ; Bern- 
hardi, Geschichte Russlands und der europaischen Politik ; and Korff, Avene- 
ment au trone ds l'Empereur Nicolas I. 



LECTURE 68. 



THE EASTERN QUESTION: THE INDEPENDENCE OF GREECE. 

The importance of the Eastern question in the history of Europe dur- 
ing the 19th century ; owing to the extinction of Poland, it becomes 
practically a Turkish question ; England and Austria have devoted 
themselves to checking the disruption of the Turkish Empire, which it 
has been the traditional policy of Russia to promote. 

The position of the Turks at the time of the Congress of Vienna ; de- 
cline of the old Muhammadan fanaticism and energy ; influence of the 
Phanariot Greek families ; the government of the Sultan Mahmud II. 
(1808-30); quasi- independence in Egypt attained by Mehemet Ali 
(b. 1769, d. 1849) after his destruction of the Mamelukes (1811); the 
power of Ali Pasha of Janina (b. 1741, d. 1822) in Albania ; discontent 
of the Christian populations under Turkish rule, of the Romanian in- 
habitants of the Danubian provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia, of the 
Slavs of Servia, and of the Greeks. 

The insurrection of the Servians under Kara George (1804) ; recog- 
nition of independence by the Treaty of Bucharest (28 May, 1812) ; the 
Turks nevertheless reconquered Servia and expelled Kara George ; the 
second Servian insurrection under Milosch Obrenovitch (18 15) ; murder 
of Kara George (July, 1817) ; Milosch Obrenovitch declared himself 
Prince of Servia (6 Nov. 1817). 

Condition of the Danubian provinces ; loss of Bessarabia by the Treaty 
of Bucharest ; continued government of Moldavia and Wallachia by 
Hospodars appointed from the Phanariot Greek families of Constanti- 



214 The Greek Insurrection. 

nople ; failure of the attempt of Alexander Ypsilanti to raise an insur- 
rection on behalf of the Greeks among the Romanians (1821) ; absence 
of sympathy between Greeks and Romanians ; appointment by the 
Sultan of two Romanian boyars or nobles, John Stourza and Gregory 
Ghica, as Hospodars of Moldavia and Wallachia (1822). 

The Greek insurrection (1821) ; encouraged, but not openly, by the 
Tsar Alexander I. ; his friendship for Capo d'lstria (b. 1776) ; gallan- 
try of the Greek insurgents ; Metternich declared against assisting 
them ; Alexander, therefore, dismissed Capo d'lstria from office (1822) ; 
strong feeling among the educated classes in England and France in 
favor of the Greeks ; many volunteers, including Byron, went to their 
assistance ; large loans raised for them in England ; death of Byron 
(19 Apr. 1824) ; arrival of an Egyptian army under Ibrahim Pasha, 
sent by Mehemet Ali at the request of the Sultan (March, 1825). 

Change caused in the attitude of Russia towards the Eastern Ques- 
tion by the accession of Nicholas ; his resolution to promote Russian 
interests in Turkey without consulting the other powers ; agreement of 
Nicholas with Canning to force the Turks to recognize the independ- 
ence of Greece (4 Apr., 1826) ; increased sympathy for the Greeks 
aroused by the atrocities of the Turks at the capture of Missolonghi 
(22 Apr., 1826) ; by the Treaty of Ackerman with Russia (7 Oct., 1826) 
the Sultan agreed to appoint local boyars, elected by the local divans, 
for a term of seven years as Hospodars or princes of the two Danubian 
provinces, who could not be removed without the consent of the Tsar, 
and to recognize the quasi-independence of Servia under Turkish 
suzerainty. 

Canning, prime minister of England (10 Apr., 1827); Capo d'lstria 
elected President of the Greek State (14 Apr.) ; Russia, England and 
France signed an agreement for securing absolute independence for 
Greece (6 July) ; the Turks, encouraged by Metternich, refused to 
yield ; death of Canning (8 Aug.) ; destruction of the Turkish and 
Egyptian fleet by the allies at Navarino (20 Oct., 1827). 

Position of the Sultan Mahmud II . ; by the massacre of the Janissa- 
ries (15 June, 1826) he had destroyed his army ; the battle of Navarino 
had destroyed his fleet ; nevertheless, he refused to consent to the inde- 
pendence of Greece. 



The Russo- Turkish War, i828-i82g. 215 

The Tsar Nicholas, in the name of the Triple Alliance, attacked the 
Turks, and a Russian army crossed the Pruth (7 May, 1828) ; changes 
of ministry in England and France caused England under Wellington 
to be less eager, and France under Martignac to be more eager, to sup- 
port the cause of the Greeks ; a French force under Maison occupied 
the Morea, which was evacuated by the Egyptian troops ; the Russians 
repulsed from Shumla and Silistria ; successful campaign of Paskievitch 
(b. 1782, d. 1856) in Armenia. 

By an agreement between England, France and Russia, the limits of 
Greece were fixed, and it was resolved that some prince not belonging 
to the royal houses of those countries should be placed upon the 
throne of Greece (22 March, 1829) ; candidature of Leopold of Saxe- 
Coburg-Gotha. 

Campaign of 1829: Diebitch (b. 1785, d. 1831) at Adrianople ; terror 
of the Sultan Mahmud ; by the Treaty of Adrianople (14 Sept., 1829) 
the Treaty of Ackerman was renewed with the addition that the Hos- 
podars of the Danubian provinces were to be appointed for life ; the in- 
dependence of Greece was recognized, and the Russians were permitted 
to occupy the fortresses upon the Danube as a guarantee for the pay- 
ment of a large indemnity by the Turks. 

Conclusion of the Greek question : the throne refused by Leopold ; 
murder of Capo d' Istria (9 Oct., 1831) ; Otho of Bavaria made King of 
Greece (7 May, 1832) ; the Morea evacuated by the French troops. 

The Tsar Nicholas I. and Poland : the government of the Grand 
Duke Constantine ; the indignation of the Poles at the refusal of self- 
government ; the feeling of nationality maintained by secret societies ; 
the Poles, who had served under Napoleon, looked to France for help 
in regaining their independence. 

Effect of the Revolution of July, 1830, in France upon Poland ; the 
insurrection at Warsaw (29 Nov., 1830) ; the Russians driven from 
Poland; Chlopicki, Dictator of Poland (5 Dec, 1830-23 Jan., 1831) ; 
the Poles defeated the Russians at Waver (31 Mar., 1831), and else- 
where ; refusal of the Powers to help the Poles ; the Austrians and Prus- 
sians massed troops upon their frontiers, fearing that the insurrection 
would reach Austrian and Prussian Poland : Louis Philippe of France 
not firm enough on his throne to interfere ; the Poles defeated at Ostro- 



216 The Eastern Question. 

lenka (26 May, 1831) ; Warsaw besieged and taken by Paskievitch 
(7 Sept., 1S31) ; cruel punishment of the Polish insurgents ; rigorous 
government of Poland by the Tsar Nicholas. 

Policy of Nicholas towards the Turks : by his occupation of the Dan- 
ubian fortresses he kept them at his mercy ; the character and career of 
Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt ; he invaded Syria (Oct., 1831) with the 
intention of marching on Constantinople ; intervention of England 
and France to stop Mehemet Ali (5 May, 1833) ; the Sultan Mahmud 
called in the help of Russia and signed an offensive and defensive treaty 
with Nicholas at Unkiar Skelessi (8 July, 1833). 

Conclusion of the Romanian question : a constitution or organic law 
drawn up under Russian influence for the Danubian provinces ; ac- 
cepted in Wallachia (July, 1831) and Moldavia (Jan., 1832); excellence 
of the administrative arrangements made hy this constitution, but 
political power was left entirely to the boyars ; appointment of Alex- 
ander Ghica to be Hospodar or Prince of Wallachia and of Michael 
Stourza to be Hospodar or Prince of Moldavia (1834); evacuation of the 
Danubian principalities by the Russians: 

Conclusion of the Servian question : Milosch Obrenovitch confirmed 
as Prince of Servia, but under the obligation to pay an annual tribute 
to the Turks and to maintain a Turkish garrison in Belgrade (Aug., 
1830). 

Russia's advance into Central Asia : conquest of Central Asian 
tribes one of the national aims of the Russian people; importance and 
value of the work to Europe; the campaigns of the Russians for the pos- 
session of the Caucasus and the conquest of Circassia and Georgia ; 
Russian wars with Persia ; by the Treaty of Gulistan (12 Oct., 18 13) 
Fateh Ali Shah ceded Daghestan to Russia, and by the Treaty of 
Turkomanchai (22 Feb., 1828) Russian influence became predominant 
in Persia. 

The settlement of the Eastern Question presents different problems to 
England, France and Austria, which all have an interest in restraining 
Russia. 

Authorities : For the history of the Eastern Question, reference may be made 
to the sketch contained in Debidour, Histoire diplomatique de 1'Europe ; to several 
of the other works cited under Lecture 67 ; to Rosen, Geschichte der Tiirkei ( 1826- 



The Reign of Charles X. 217 

1856); to Balleydier, Histoire de l'Empereur Nicolas ; to Gents, Depeches inedits 
aux Hospodars de Valachie ; to Ringhoffer, Ein Dezennium preussischer Orient- 
politik zur Zeit des Zaren Nikolaus (1821-1830); to Prokesch-Osten, Mehemet Ali; 
to Xenopol, Histoire des Roumains ; to Saint-Rene- Taillandier, La Serbie, Kara- 
Georges et Milosch ; Cunibert, Essai historique sur les revolutions et l'independance 
de la Serbie (1804-1856); and to Ranke, History of Servia. For the War of Greek 
Independence, the best authorities are Capo a" I stria, Correspondance ; Prokesch- 
Osten, Geschichte des Abfalls der Griechen ; Finlay, History of the Greek Revolu- 
tion* Gordon, History of the Greek Revolution ; Phillips, The War of Greek Inde- 
pendence (1821-33) ; Soutzo, Histoire de la revolution grecque, and Tricoupis 1 
history written in modern Greek ; for the policy of Canning, see his Political Life 
by Stapleton, and his Official Correspondence, ed. Stapleton; for the war between 
Russia and Turkey, see Chesney, The Russo-Turkish Campaigns of 1828-29; JHoltke, 
Journal of the War between Russia and Turkey in Europe; and Ponton, La Russie 
en Asie Mineure, ou campagne du marechal Paskievitch en 1828 et 1S29 ; for the 
Polish Insurrection, Schmitt, Geschichte des polnischen Aufstandes, 1831 and 
Mieroslawski, Histoire de la revolution de Pologne; and, for the advance of Russia 
into Central Asia, Hellwald, The Russians in Central Asia, and Popowski, The 
Rival Powers in Central Asia. A list of books in French may be found in Bengesco, 
Essai d'une notice bibliographique sur la question d'Orient; Orient europeen, 
182 1-97. 



LECTURE 69. 



THE REVOLUTION OF 1830 IN FRANCE. 

The position of parties under the Restoration : in the Chambers ap- 
peared only ultra-Royalists, and Constitutionalists, who desired to in- 
terpret the Charter of 1814 according to the principles of 1789 ; in the 
army and in military circles were many Bonapartists, and in the cities 
the democratic feeling was very strong. 

Character of the ultra-Royalist administration of Villele (1821-28) 
during the latter years of L,ouis XVIII. and the first years of Charles 
X. ; severe repression of Bonapartist plots and city riots ; the Royalists 
endeavored to make the Constitutional party responsible for Bona- 
partist and democratic excesses ; the bourgeois and educated classes of 
France supported the Constitutionalists ; Royalism was confined to a 
small party of the nobility. 



2iS The Revolution of July. 

Growing importance of journalism : the work of Armand Carrel, 
Courier, Thiers and Guizot. 

The character and policy of Charles X. ; he hoped by a vigorous for- 
reign policy, as shown in the expedition to the Morea in 1828 and in 
the expedition to Algiers in 1830, to turn the minds of the people from 
internal politics, and by a close alliance with the absolutist powers, es- 
pecially Russia, to get assistance from abroad in case of insurrection at 
home. 

The elections of 1827 gave a large majority in the Chambers to the 
Constitutionalists ; Villele succeeded in office by Martiguac (4 Jan , 
182S) ; the new ministry satisfied neither the King nor the Chambers, 
and was succeeded by the ultra-Royalist ministry of Polignac (8 Aug., 
1829) ; the king and ministers, being unable to get a majority for their 
measures, resolved to alter the Charter, for the purpose of increasing the 
royal power. 

Proclamation of the Ordinances, submitting the press to severe cen- 
sorship and modifying the electoral laws (25 July, 1830). 

The insurrection of July, 1830, in Paris ; the erection of barricades 
and street fighting (27, 28 July) ; the failure of the troops to suppress 
the insurrection ; Charles X., when too late, withdrew the Ordinances 
(29 July) ; he resolved to leave France with his family (31 July) ; he 
appointed the Duke of Orleans, Lieutenant- General of the kingdom, 
(1 Aug.,) and abdicated (2 Aug.) ; he reached England (17 Aug.). 

Surprise of the Constitutionalists at their sudden and complete victory ; 
the part played by La Fayette ; the Constitutionalists resolved that al- 
though the victory had been won by the democrats of Paris it should 
result in the formation of a constitutional monarch}^ ; the Chambers 
revised the Charter from the liberal point of view, and (7 Aug.) elected 
the Duke of Orleans as King of the French under the title of Louis 
Philippe. 

Character, career and disposition of Louis Philippe (b. 1773, d. 1S50.); 
difficulties of his position at the commencement of his reign ; he repre- 
sented the ideas and wishes of the bourgeois and not of the whole people 
of France, which weakened him at home, while abroad he w T as regarded 
as the creation of a new French Revolution not less dangerous to the 
monarchical S3 ;r stem of Europe than the first French Revolution. 



The Policy of Louis Philippe. 219 

The foreign policy of Louis Philippe : importance of the service ren- 
dered at this time by Talleyrand, as ambassador to London (Sept., 1830- 
Nov., 1834) ; the Monarchy of July recognized by Wellington, as 
prime minister of England, and cordially supported by the Reform 
Ministry of Lord Grey, which succeeded to power in Nov., 1830; the 
recognition by England was followed by recognition by Austria and 
Prussia, Metternich and Frederick William III. being afraid to attack 
France by themselves ; the Tsar Nicholas was too much occupied with 
putting down the Polish insurrection to interfere in France, and did not 
desire to do so after Louis Philippe refused to assist the Poles. 

The insurrections in Belgium and elsewhere which followed the Revo- 
lution in France made the position of Louis Philippe very difficult,be- 
cause France was held responsible for the other risings ; skill shown 
by Louis Philippe and Talleyrand. 

Internal policy of Louis Philippe ; doubtfulness of his title as a legiti- 
mate or as a revolutionary monarch ; his adoption of the tricolor flag ; La 
Fayette appointed Commandant- General of the National Guards of 
France (16 Aug.); the first ministry of Louis Philippe containing 
members of both the Constitutional and advanced Liberal parties ; 
Laffitte (b. 1767, d. 1844), the leader of the advanced party, made chief 
minister (3 Nov., 1830) ; changes made in the Constitution. 

Casimir Perier (b. 1777, d. 1832) ; his ministry (13 Mar., 1831-16 
May, 1832) ; his strong government at home and his strong foreign 
policy ; abolition of the hereditary peerage and appointment of a cham- 
ber of life peers. 

Significance of the Revolution of 1830 in France ; the bourgeois at 
last had an opportunity of putting into effect the principles of 1789; 
results of the experiment. 

Authorities : For the government of the Restoration, see Viel-Castel and Du- 
vergierde Hauranne, cited under Lecture 67, with Daudet, Le ministere de Martig- 
nac. The Revolution of 1830 in France is treated at length in the first chapters of 
the following general histories of the reign of Louis Philippe : Thureau-Dangin, 
Histoire de la Monarchic de Juillet ; Louis Blanc, Histoire de dix ans ; Capefigne, 
L'Europe depuis l'avenement du Roi Louis Philippe ; D' Haussonville, Histoire 
de la politique exterieure du gouvernement francais ( 1830-48), and Hillebrand, Ge- 
schichte Frankreichs ; of special value are Talleyrand, Memoires, vols, iv and v, 
containing his correspondence with Louis Philippe from 1830 to 1834, and refer- 



220 The Belgian Insurrection. 

ence may be made to Weil, Les elections legislative depuis 1789 ; E. Pierre, His- 
toire des assemblies politiques ; Casimir Perier, Opinions et discours ; Guizot, 
Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de mon temps ; Lafayette, Memoires ; Bardoux\ 
Les dernieres annees de La Fayette ; Salvandy, Seize, mois ; Laffiiie, Memoires , 
D'Haussez, Memoires; Pasquier, Memoires; the Due de Broglie, Souvenirs, and 
Daudet, Le proces des ministres de Charles X. 



LECTURE 70. 



THE BELGIAN INSURRECTION. 

The mistake made by the Congress of Vienna in uniting the Prot- 
estant and Catholic Netherlands under one monarch ; the hereditary 
antagonism of the Dutch and the Belgians ; in 1815 Belgium had been 
for more than twenty years a part of France and resented the govern- 
ment of the Dutch. 

The government of William I., King of the Netherlands; he de- 
clared Dutch the official language of the kingdom and favored his 
Dutch over his Belgian subjects. 

The Belgians excited by the news of the Revolution of July, 1830, in 
Paris, and hoping for help from the new government of France, rose in 
insurrection (25 Aug., 1830) ; a Dutch attack on Brussels repulsed 
(23-27 Sept.) ; a provisional government formed, and a national as- 
sembly summoned. 

The National Assembly of Belgium met (10 Nov.), solemnly pro- 
claimed the independence of Belgium (18 Nov.), and that Belgium 
should be like France a constitutional monarchy and not a republic. 

William I. appealed to the Great Powers for assistance, on the ground 
that the independence of Belgium was contrary to the arrangements 
made by the Congress of Vienna ; but the Tsar Nicholas was engaged 
in Poland, Metternich's attention was fixed on Italy, England, under 
the Reform Ministry of Grey, sympathized with the Belgian insurgents, 
and only the King of Prussia was inclined to assist him. 

The difficult position of L,ouis Philippe : as the king made by the 
Revolution of 1830 in Paris, he was looked on as responsible for the 



The Independence of Belgium. 221 

Belgian Revolution by Europe and appealed to for help by the Belgians; 
England was the only great power which cared much about Belgium, 
and it thought more of keeping Belgium separate from France than sub- 
ject to Holland ; Talleyrand, as French ambassador in London, agreed 
to act with England in settling the fate of the Jbelgians ; a conference 
of the Powers summoned for this purpose in London. 

The Conference of Eondon recognized the independence of Belgium 
(20 Dec), and directed an armistice to De made (9 Jan., 1831) ; it fixed 
the boundaries of the new Belgian State (20 Jan.), excluding from it 
Luxemburg, Maestricht and the right bank of the Scheldt ; discontent of 
the Belgians with this frontier, which was eventually slightly modified. 

The Due de Nemours, second son of Louis Philippe, elected King 
of the Belgians over the Duke of Eeuchtenberg and the Archduke 
Charles; he refused the throne (17 Feb., 1831) ; Surlet de Chokier 
made regent (24 Feb.) ; Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (b. 1790, d. 
1865), the English candidate, elected King of the Belgians (4 June); he 
accepted the throne under certain conditions ; the Conference of Lon- 
don, under the influence of the English foreign minister, Palmerston 
(b. 1784, d. 1865), declared Belgium neutral under the guarantee of the 
Powers. 

William I. disregarded the armistice and suddenly invaded Belgium 
(1 Aug., 1831); Leopold appealed for aid to France; vigorous action 
of the Casimir Perier ministry; a French army under Gerard occupied 
Brussels (12 Aug., 183 1); the Belgians accepted the terms fixed by the 
Conference of London (15 Nov., 183 1); the states of Europe generally 
recognized Leopold. 

William I. remained obdurate; the English and French fleets block- 
aded the Dutch ports; Gerard's army was directed to take the citadel 
of Antwerp, the only Belgian fortress still garrisoned by the Dutch 
troops; capture of Antwerp (23 Dec, 1832). 

From that time the independence of Belgium was assured, though 
William I. still tried to make difficulties. 

The nature and character of the Belgian Constitution. 

The effect of the Revolutions of 1830 in Paris and Belgium on Ger- 
many; riots and risings in Rhenish Prussia, where the Catholics were 
alarmed at the Protestant legislation of Frederick William III., and 



222 Repressive Policy of Metternich. 

where the idea of self-government was especially strong ; insurrections 
and demands for self-government in other German states, notably in 
Hanover, Hesse- Cassel and Saxony ; expulsion of Charles II., Duke of 
Brunswick, by his people (7 Sept., 1830). 

Resurrection of the Young German movement for nationality and 
self-government : revival of the Tugenbund, the Burscheuschaft, etc. 

Metternich attributed these political risings to the growth of revolu- 
tionary ideas, and attacked all representative government as a form of 
republicanism and as essentially revolutionary. 

Metternich' s ascendency over the mind of Frederick William III.; 
after 1S30 he appealed to the Tsar Nicholas and hoped to revive the 
Hoi}' Alliance. 

The Conferences of Toplitz (7-16 Aug., 1833), and Miinchengratz 
(10-20 Sept., 1833) ; the three powers of Austria, Prussia and Russia, 
guaranteed each other's rights in Poland and took measures for crush- 
ing the idea of Polish nationality ; they also resolved against the doc- 
trine of non-intervention, and declared the right of an 3^ monarch, whose 
position was assailed by internal rebellion, to appeal for aid to other 
monarchs. 

With regard to Germany, a law w r as passed in the Federal Diet, 
through the influence of Metternich, that, in case of disagreement 
between a German ruler and his people, the Confederation could 
interfere to restore the power of the ruler, and it was declared that no 
constitution granted by himself could limit the right of a ruler to collect 
taxes. 

The effect of the Revolution of 1830 in Italy : the Carbonari directed 
a series of insurrections ; the Empress Marie Louise driven from Parma, 
and Duke Francis IV. from Modena (Feb., 1831) ; insurrections in the 
States of the Church due to the repressive government of Pope Leo 
XII. — Delia Genga — (1823-29) and of Pope Pius VIII. — Castiglioni — 
(1829-30) ; the election of Pope Gregory XVI. — Cappellari — (2 Feb., 
1831) ; provisional government formed for the Legations at Bologna, 
under Carlo Pepcli, and rejection of the temporal power of the Papacy. 

Metternich sent Austrian troops to restore order in Parma, Modena, 
and the States of the Church (March, 1831) ; the Italian insurgents ex- 
pected help from France ; the attitude taken by Louis Philippe and 



Revolution in Portugal. 223 

Casimir Perier ; the French occupied Ancona (22 Feb., 1832), which 
they asserted their right to hold as long as the Austrians occupied the 
Legations ; the French evacuated Ancona, when the Austrians with- 
drew (Dec, 1838). 

Significance of the movement of 1830 in Europe. 

Authorities: On the government of Belgium by the Dutch, see Gerlache, Histoire 
duroyaume des Pays-Bas depuis 1814 jusqu'en 1830; on the Belgian Revolution, see 
White, The Belgic Revolution of 1830 ; Nothomb, Essai historique et politique sur la 
revolution de Belgique ; Juste, La revolution beige de 1S30, Le congres national de 
Belgique, Les fondateurs de la monarchic beige, and Leopold I. et Leopold 11., 
leur vie et leur regne ; Bavay, Histoire de la revolution beige de 1830 ; and Potter, 
Souvenirs. Primary authorities are Discussions du congres national de 
Belgique, 1830-31, ed. Huyttens, 5 vols.; and Recueil de pieces diplomatiques rel- 
atives aux affaires de la Belgique en 1830-32, ed. Verstolk van Soelen ; Thonissen, 
La constitution beige annotee. On the revolutionary movement in Germany in 
1830, see Gervinus and Treitschke, cited under Lecture 67 ; Butte, Geschichte der 
neuesten Zeit ; Deventer, Cinquante annees de l'histoire federale de l'Allemagne ; 
Mucke, Die politischen Bewegung in Deutschland von 1830 bis 1835 ; and Bieder- 
mann, 1815-1840, funf und zwanzig Jahre deutscher Geschichte ; and, in Italy, see 
Thayer, The Dawn of Italian Independence, Italy from the Congress of Vienna, 
1814, to the Fall of Venice, 1849 ; Stillman, The Union of Italy ; and Tivatoni, 
Storia critica del Risorgimento Italiano. 



LECTURE 71. 



INSURRECTION AND CIVIL WAR IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 

The condition of Portugal after the Peninsular War; extent of 
English influence in the Regency and the army; expulsion of the Eng- 
lish officers (1820) and adoption of a democratic Constitution (1822). 

Return of John VI. to Portugal (4 July, 1821); Brazil declared its 
independence under his elder son, the Emperor Pedro I. (Aug., 1822); 
on the death of John VI. (10 Mar., 1826), the Emperor Pedro issued the 
Charter of 1826 (26 Apr.) establishing moderate parliamentary govern- 
ment and then abdicated the throne of Portugal (2 May, 1826) in favor 
of his daughter, Maria da Gloria (b. 18 19); the English force sent by 
Canning to Portugal to maintain order, withdrawn in 1827. 



224 Civil War in Portugal. 

Dom Miguel (b. 1802, d. 1866), younger brother of the Emperor 
Pedro, who was appointed Regent (3 July, 1827), seized the throne 130 
June, 1828) ; he declared himself an absolute monarch, and persecuted 
both the moderate adherents to the Charter of 1826, and the more radi- 
cal supporters of the Constitution of 1822. 

The reign of Dom Miguel ; both Chartists and Constitutionalists rose 
in rebellion (1829) and declared in favor of Maria da Gloria ; the Em- 
peror Pedro resigned the throne of Brazil (7 April, 1831) and came to 
the support of his daughter's cause ; attitude of the powers of Europe 
towards the civil war in Portugal ; many English officers entered the 
Queen's service ; the siege of Oporto ; Napier (b. 1786, d. i860) de- 
stroyed Miguel's fleet off Cape Saint Vincent (5 July, 1833) ; the Ped- 
roites occupied Lisbon (24 July). 

England, France and Spain recognized Maria da Gloria and formed 
the Quadruple Alliance (22 Apr., 1834) ; Dom Miguel surrendered to a 
Spanish and Portuguese army at Evora Monte (26 May, 1834) ; by the 
Convention of Evora Monte (29 May) he was expelled from Portugal. 

Death of the ex-Emperor Pedro (24 Sept., 1834) ; troubled reign of 
Maria da Gloria (1834-53); repeated outbreaks of civil war and fre- 
quent military pronunciamentos in favor of the Charter of 1826 and the 
Constitution of 1822 ; revision of the Charter (1852) ; the career of Sal- 
danha (b. 1790, d. 1876). 

Revival of national feeling in Portugal ; rejection of the Iberianist 
idea. 

The latter years of the reign of Ferdinand VII. of Spain, after his 
restoration to absolute power by the French in 1823; the question of the 
succession to the throne : Ferdinand VII., by a Pragmatic Sanction, 
declared his elder daughter, Isabella, to be his heir ; opposition of Don 
Carlos (b. 1788, d. 1855), his brother, who claimed the succession as 
male heir. 

Death ol Ferdinand VII. (29 Sept., 1833) ; Isabella, a child of three 
years old, recognized as Queen by the greater part of Spain, under the 
regency of her mother, Christina (b. 1806, d. 1878), a daughter of Ferd- 
inand I., King of the Two Sicilies ; character of Christina ; the regency 
recognized by England and France. 

Don Carlos opposed the regency and declared himself king ; his cause 



The First Car-list War. 225 

favored by the clericals and by the mountaineers of Northern Spain ; 
outbreak of civil war ; victories of the Carlists ; death of Zumalacarregui 
(25 June, 1835). 

Rivalry of England and France in the affairs of the Peninsula : per- 
sonal rivalry between Palmerston and Louis Philippe ; both countries 
prevented by jealousy of each other from openly assisting the Chris- 
tinists, though they both as constitutional monarchies desired 
her success over the Carlists ; " Legions " of volunteers were, how- 
ever, raised both in France and in England for the support of the Chris- 
tinists ; services of Sir De Lacy Evans. 

Perilous position of the Chris tinists ; the military revolt of La Granja 
(12-13 Aug., 1836) ; Christina summoned a Cortes, which promulgated 
the liberal constitution of 1837 (June) ; vigorous prosecution of the war 
against the Carlists ; victories of Espartero ; defeat and flight of Don 
Carlos (Sept., 1839). 

Espartero forced Christina to leave Spain (Oct., 1840), and ruled the 
country as Regent for three years ; his strong government and en- 
deavors to put down brigandage and to restore the prosperity of Spain. 

Narvaez overthrew Espartero (July, 1843), recalled Christina, and 
declared the young Queen Isabella of age (8 Nov., 1843). 

The rivalry between England and France for influence in Spain be- 
comes more pronounced ; the policy of Louis Philippe ; the question of 
the Spanish marriages ; Queen Isabella married to her cousin Don 
Francisco de Assisi, Duke of Cadiz, and her sister and heiress to the 
Due de Montpensier, fifth son of Louis Philippe (10 Oct., 1846). 

Condition of Spain during the reign of Queen Isabella : frequent 
changes in the ministry between Narvaez (b. 1800, d. 1868), Espartero 
(b. 1792, d. 1879) and O'Donnell (b. 1809, d. 1867) ; backwardness of 
Spain in material and intellectual progress. 

Characteristics of the history of the Peninsula during the period suc- 
ceeding the overthrow of Napoleon ; failure of representative institu- 
tions and party government to meet the conditions in Spain and 
Portugal ; the meaning and effect of the pronunciamentos and civil wars. 

Authorities : Upon the civil wars in Portugal and the establishment of repre- 
sentative government there, see Morse Stephens, The Story of Portugal ; Smith, 
Memoirs of the Duke of Saldanha ; Luz Soriano, Historia da Guerra civi e do Es- 



226 The Monarchy of July. 

tabelecimento do Governo Parlamentar em Portugal ; Arriaga, Historia da Revo- 
lucao portugueza de 1820 ; Freire de Carvalho, Memorias para a historia do tempo 
que duron a Usurpacao de Dom Miguel ; Gomes de Barros e Cunha, Historia da 
Liberdade em Portugal, and Bollaert, The Wars of Succession in Spain and Portu- 
gal ; upon the same period in Spain, see Reynald, Histoire de l'Espagne depuis la 
mort de Charles III.; Hubbard, Histoire contemporaine de l'Espagne; Pirala, 
Historia de la guerra civil y de los partidos liberal y Carlista ; Mariano, La regencia 
de Baldomero Espartero ; Los Valles, Don Carlos ; Bollaert; and Duncan, The 
English in Spain, or the War of Succession between 1834 and 1840. 



LECTURE 72. 



EUROPE DURING THE REIGN OF LOUIS PHILIPPE. 

The characteristics of the Monarchy of July : its founders moulded 
their ideas on the English parliamentary system, including the responsi- 
bility of ministers, the annual voting of supplies, and the selection of 
ministers from the legislature, but the upper House consisted of life 
and not of hereditary peers, and the popular House was elected by the 
large taxpayers and members of the learned professions, the franchise 
being restricted to about three hundred thousand persons. 

The difficulties of the position of Louis Philippe : he was opposed on 
the one side by the Legitimists, who caused disturbances in the South, 
and on the other by the Republicans, who caused many riots in the 
great industrial cities, and especially in Lyons. 

Effect of the foreign policy of Louis Philippe and of his refusal to 
help the insurgent Belgians, Poles and Italians upon his position at 
home. 

Death of Casimir Perier (16 May, 1832). 

Repression of a Republican rising in Paris (6 June), and arrest of the 
Duchess of Berry (7 Nov.), who had endeavored to raise the Vendee for 
the Legitimists. 

Commencement of parliamentary government ; formation of the Soult 
administration (n Oct., 1832); difficulties in the way of establishing 
regular parliamentary government in France ; absence of definite par- 



The Foreign Policy of Louis Philippe. 227 

liamentary parties; the chief parliamentary leaders, Thiers (b. 1797, d. 
1877), Guizot (b. 1787, d. 1874), the Due de Broglie (b. 1785, d. 1870), 
Mole (b. 1781, d. 1855), Berryer (b. 1790, d. 1868), and Odilon Barrot 
(b. 1791, d. 1873) ; frequent ministerial changes. 

Numerous industrial and democratic insurrections in France ; 
Fieschi's attempt on the king's life (28 July, 1835); attempt of Louis 
Napoleon upon Strasburg (30 Oct., 1836). 

The foreign policy of Louis Philippe : his intimate relations with 
England (1830-34) ; the cause of this close alliance, the distrust of him 
felt by the other Great Powers; gradual weakening of the alliance ; 
Palmerston, the English foreign minister, endeavored to keep France 
from interfering in the affairs of Spain and Portugal ; Louis Philippe 
then weakened in his attachment for England, and negotiated with 
Austria, endeavoring to obtain an Austrian archduchess as wife for his 
eldest son ; France and England came into collision on South American, 
Asiatic, African and other questions. 

The occupation and gradual conquest of Algeria by France : the re- 
sistance of Abd-el-Kader (b. 1807, d. 1883); the campaigns of Bugeaud 
(b. 1784, d. 1849). 

Revolution in Servia ; abdication of Milosch Obrenovitch (13 June, 
1839) ; death of his son and successor, Milan (8 July) ; brief reign of 
Michael Obrenovitch, second son of Milosch ; his expulsion (27 Aug., 
1842) ; election of Alexander Karageorgevitch by the Skuptchina, or 
Diet, as Prince of Servia (14 Sept.). 

A fresh crisis in the Eastern Question nearly caused war between 
France and England ; the Sultan Mahmud II. had not forgiven Mehe- 
met Ali, the Pasha of Egypt, who had conquered Syria in 1832, and 
had only been prevented from overthrowing the Ottoman Empire by 
the intervention of Russia and the Great Powers; the Turks invaded 
Syria, but were defeated by the Egyptians near Aleppo (24 June, 
1839) ; death of Mahmud II (30 June), and accession of Abdul Medjid. 

The French sympathized with Mehemet Ali, but England feared that 
his success would overthrow the Turkish Empire, and therefore agreed 
with Russia, Prussia and Austria to intervene on behalf of the Turks ; 
Palmerston resolved to break the Anglo-French alliance and by the 
Treaty of London (15 July, 1840) agreed with the other three Great 



228 The Spanish Marriages. 

Powers] to act without France ; Napier and Stopford bombarded Bey- 
rout (12 Sept.) and Acre (2 Nov.); the Egyptians retired from Syria; 
and eventually (13 Feb., 1841) Mehemet Ali was forced to accept an 
hereditary title to Egypt under certain conditions, and to abandon all 
other claims; the Great Powers guaranteed the neutrality of the Dar- 
danelles under Turkish sovereignty (13 July, 1841). 

Indignation felt in France against England : war averted with diffi- 
culty ; formation of the Guizot administration (29 Oct., 1840), which 
remained in office till the end of the reign of Louis Philippe. 

Growth of the Napoleonic legend in France : attempt of Louis Na- 
poleon on Boulogne (6 Aug., 1840) ; the remains of the first Napoleon 
brought to France and interred in Paris (15 Dec, 1840). 

Changes brought about in the political attitude and conditions of 
England during the reign of Louis Philippe ; the passing of the Reform 
Bill (7 June, 1832) transferred political power from the aristocracy to 
the middle classes, and subsequent reforms made the administration 
more democratic ; the accession of Victoria (20 June, 1837) separated 
English from continental interests, for the Kingdom of Hanover passed 
to her uncle, the Duke of Cumberland, who ascended the throne as 
Ernest I. 

Marriage of Victoria to Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (b. 1819, d. 
1861) ; his character, and interest in foreign politics ; the Queen's first 
ministers, Melbourne and Palmerston ; influence of "Wellington ; Sir 
Robert Peel (b. 1788, d. 1850) prime minister (1841) ; his endeavors for 
peace. 

The question of the Spanish marriages : Louis Philippe tricked the 
English ministry, and after preventing the marriage of Queen Isabella of 
Spain to the English candidate, Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 
secured the marriage of the young Queen to her cousin Don Francisco 
and of her only sister to his own fifth son, the Due de Montpensier 
(10 Oct., 1846). 

Indignation of the English court and ministry at the Spanish mar- 
riages; Lord John Russell (b. 1792. d. 1878), who came into office with 
Palmerston as foreign minister (6 July, 1846), resolved to isolate Louis 
Philippe ; this government refused to discourage the revolutionary 
movements on the point of breaking out all over Europe. 



The Zollverein. 229 

Position of Austria during the reign of Louis. Philippe: the death of 
the Emperor Francis I. and the accession of the Emperor Ferdinand I. 
(2 Mar., 1835), strengthened the position of Metternich ; his close rela- 
tions with the Tsar Nicholas ; occupation of Cracow (1836-41) by 
Austria ; annexation of Cracow by Austria (6 Nov., 1846) ; Metternich's 
continued efforts to repress all movements for parliamentary institutions 
or national independence in Italy and Germany ; Metternich's friend- 
ship with Russia strengthened, while his influence over Prussia de- 
creased after the accession of Frederick William IV. (1840). 

Insignificant part played by Prussia in European politics during tne 
latter years of the reign of Frederick William III.; the king's fidelity 
to the ideas of the Holy Alliance and to the settlement reached by the 
Congress of Vienna ; he refused to grant to the Prussians the constitu- 
tion he had promised ; under Metternich's influence he opposed liberal 
and parliamentary ideas all over Germany ; discontent caused in 
Rhenish Prussia by his Protestant sympathies \ death of Frederick Wil- 
liam III. (7 June, 1840). 

In spite of this opposition to liberal ideas Prussia was regarded as the 
one power which could unite Germany ; this doctrine held especially in 
Northern Germany, fostered by the universities, and encouraged by 
Prussian statesmen and administrators ; excellence of the Prussian ad- 
ministrative and military system ; maintenance of the system of Scharn- 
horst ; Prussia became especially the guardian of the smaller states of 
Germany ; the first step taken towards hegemony by the formation of 
the Zollverein. 

The history of the Zollverein or Customs-union ; the ideas and 
arguments of List (b. 1789, d. 1846) ; the Federal Diet of the Ger- 
manic Confederation refused to establish a customs- union ; formation 
of the Zollverein (1833); its chief members, Prussia, Bavaria, Wiirtem- 
berg, Saxony, Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, and the petty states of 
the Thuringian Union ; joined by Baden, Nassau and Hesse-Homburg 
(1835), Frankfort (1836), Waldeck (1838), Brunswick (1841) and Lux- 
emburg (1842); opposed to it was the Steuerverein, consisting of Han- 
over, Oldenburg, Brunswick (to 1841), and Schaumburg-Lippe, as well 
as the two Mecklenburgs, and the free cities of Hamburg, Bremen and 
Lubeck ; commercial and political importance of the Zollverein. 



230 The War of the Sonderbund. 

Accession of Frederick William IV. as King of Prussia (1840); his 
character ; his hatred for France ; his liberal ideas ; he placed Eichhorn 
and Boyen in office, allowed exiled liberals to return, patronized German 
literature and gave a measure of liberty to the press ; he formed a States- 
General out of the Provincial Estates with taxing and consultative 
powers only (3 Feb., 1847). 

Civil war in Switzerland : the desire of the majority of the Swiss 
cantons for a stronger federal bond than that devised by the Congress 
of Vienna ; changes in the constitutions of individual cantons ; intro- 
duction, especially since 1830, of democratic ideas ; cantonal revolutions ; 
formation of the Sonderbund, by which the seven Catholic cantons of 
Lucerne, Schwyz, Uri, Unterwalden, Zug, Freiburg, and the Valais 
made an armed union to resist centralization and defend the Jesuits ; 
the majority in the Federal Diet, presided over by Ochsenbein, decreed 
the dissolution of the Sonderbund (20 July, 1847) and the expulsion 
of the Jesuits ; attitude of the Great Powers; mutual apprehensions of 
Louis Philippe and Metternich ; they deny the right of the Swiss to alter 
the constitution laid down by the Congress of Vienna ; the Sonderbund 
declared its intention to resist (29 Oct.); the Federal Diet declared war 
(4 Nov.) ; General Dufour defeated the troops of the Sonderbund and 
occupied their cantons, which submitted (29 Nov.) ; declaration of the 
new federal constitution, giving greater strength to the federal power 
and organizing a Swiss army, but recognizing cantonal rights in in- 
ternal administration. 

General apprehension of democratic risings felt in 1847 '> preparations 
for revolution ; the persistence of liberal and national ideas. 

Authorities : For the general history of the period see Debidour, Seignobos, and 
Byjfe,c\ted under Lecture 67. In addition to the works on the reign of Louis Philippe 
by Duvergier de Haiiranne, Thureau-Dangin, Louis Blanc, Capefigue, D'JLaus- 
sonville, Hillebrand, Weil and Pierre, cited under Lecture 69, see for the latter part of 
his reign and for other points touched on in this lecture, Regnault, Histoire de huit 
ans (1840-48); Guizot, Memoires pour servir a. 1' histoire de mon temps; Odilon 
Barrot, Memoires ; Mazade, Monsieur Thiers ; Thiers, Discours parlementaires ; 
Berryer, Discours parlementaires; Lacombe, Vie de Berry er; Barante, Souvenirs; 
Due de Broglie, Souvenirs ; Talleyrand, Memoires ; Thirria, Napoleon III. avant 
l'Empire ; Rousset, Conquete de l'Algerie, and Ideville, Le Marechal Bugeaud. 
For the history of the English foreign policy see Le Strange, Correspondence of 



The Revolution of February. 231 

Lord Grey and the Princess Lieven ; Falling and Ashley, Life of Lord Palmerston; 
Torrens, Life of Lord Melbourne ; Walpole, Life of Lord John Russell ; Gordon, 
Lord Aberdeen ; Greville, Memoirs ; Stockmar, Memoirs, and Martin, Life of the 
Prince Consort. For the history and development of the Zollverein see Treitschke, 
Deutsche Geschichte im neunzehnten Jahrhundert ; Weber, Der deutsche Zollver- 
ein, Geschichte seiner Entstehung und Entwickelung, and Festenberg-Packisch, 
Geschichte des Zollvereins ; for Austria, Metternich, Memoirs ; Springer, Ge- 
schichte CEsterreichs.and Krones, Geschichte der Neuzeit GEjsterreichs; for the early 
years of the reign of Frederick William IV. of Prussia, Ranke, Aus dem Brief- 
wechsel Friedrich Wilhelms IV. mit Bunsen, and Friedrich Wilhelm IV. (in his 
Werke, Vols. 50-52) ; Wagener, Die Politik Friedrich Wilhelms IV. and Bieder- 
mann, Dreissig Jahre deutscher Geschichte; and for the war with the Sonderbund, 
Van Muyden, La Suisse sous le pacte de 1S15; Cretineau-Joly, Histoire du Sonder- 
bund ; Ditfour, La campagne du Sonderbund ; Dandliker, Histoire du peuple 
Suisse, and Vulliemin, Histoire de la Confederation Suisse. 



LECTURE 73. 



THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 IN FRANCE. 

Growing unpopularity of the Monarchy of July during the adminis- 
tration of Guizot (1840- 1 848) ; the government alienated even the 
moderate liberals by refusing to grant the smallest measure of electoral 
reform ; while its rigidly Bourgeois and Capitalist sympathies exasper- 
ated the Democratic and Labor parties. 

The growth of democratic and socialist ideas among the working 
classes of France: the influence of Saint-Simon, Fourier, Proudhon, etc. 

The movements for parliamentary reform and democratic revolution 
in 1847 : the banquets and toasts to liberty, equality and fraternity ; 
Odilon Barrot and Ledru-Rollin. 

The Revolution of February, 1848 : riots in Paris (22 Feb.); resigna- 
tion of Guizot (23 Feb., 1848); appointment of Bugeaud as command- 
ant of Paris ; barricades erected in the streets ; Louis Philippe forbade 
Bugeaud to act; he abdicated the throne (24 Feb.) and left France. 

Significance of the Revolution of February ; overthrow of the Bour- 
geois Monarchy. 



232 The Second French Republic, 184.8. 

The mob of Paris burst into the Chambers and the Hotel de Ville ; 
proclamation of the Republic (26 Feb.) ; rejection of the idea of the re- 
gency to be held by the Duchess of Orleans during the minority of her 
son, the Comte de Paris ; formation of the Provisional Government (24 
Feb.), consisting of six leading republican deputies, three journalists 
and a working man, Dupont de l'Eure, Arago, Lamartine, Ledru-Rol- 
lin, Cremieux, and Marie, deputies, Marrast, Louis Blanc, and Flocon, 
journalists, and Albert ; Gamier- Pages installed as Mayor of Paris. 

Importance and conduct of Lamartine (b. 1792, d. 1869) as provis- 
ional Minister of Foreign Affairs, and of Ledru-Rollin (b. 1808, d. 1874) 
as provisional Minister of the Interior; Lamartine assured Europe that 
the revolution in Paris was not intended to encourage revolution else- 
where, while Ledru-Rollin imitated the extreme policy of the Conven- 
tion, attempted to appoint pro-consuls and establish public workshops. 

The extreme republican party in Paris endeavored to influence the 
elections, which were taking place over France, in favor of the radicals 
by numerous riots: the riot of 16 April, 1848; General Changarnier 
placed in command of the garrison and National Guard of Paris ; his 
defeat of the insurgents. 

Meeting of the Constituent Assembly (27 April, 1848); the moderate 
character and antecedents of the majority of its members ; it declared 
that France was a Republic and prepared to draw up a republican con- 
stitution on conservative lines ; it maintained the Provisional Govern- 
ment in office ; riot of 15 May in Paris, and attempt of the democratic 
party to overthrow the Constituent Assembly ; suppression of the riot 
and flight of Louis Blanc (b. 18 13, d. 1882). 

Critical position in Paris : the working classes of the Faubourg- 
Saint- Antoine prepared for insurrection ; the moderate republicans re- 
solved to resist ; General Cavaignac (b. 1802, d. 1857) appointed pro- 
visional War Minister (17 May) ; concentration of regular troops in 
Paris. 

Severe fighting in Paris (23-26 June) : storming of the barricades by 
the troops ; Paris declared in a state of siege ; supreme executive 
authority entrusted to Cavaignac ; suppression of the radical party in 
Paris. 

The Constituent Assembly, now that peace was restored, proceeded 



The Prince President Louis Napoleon. 233 

to draw up a republican constitution : the Constitution of 1848 placed 
the supreme executive authority in the hands of a President of the Re- 
public, elected directly by the people, and the legislative authority in 
the hands of a single Chamber. 

Louis Napoleon, son of Louis Bonaparte, King of Holland, and 
Hortense de Beauharnais, and nephew of the first Napoleon, elected 
President of the Republic (10 Dec, 1848) ; he received 5,562,834 votes, 
Cavaignac 1,469,166 votes, Ledru-Rollin 377,236 votes, Raspail 37,106, 
and Lamartine 21,000. 

Character and previous career of Louis Napoleon (b. 1808, d. 1873) : 
difficulties of his position ; distrusted by the Constituent Assembly, 
and both feared and hated by the extreme republicans. 

Foreign policy of the Prince President : a French army, under 
Oudinot, sent to Rome, which, after a repulse (30 April, 1849), occu- 
pied Rome (3 July), overturned the Roman Republic and reestablished 
the authority of the Pope. 

Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, and installment of the 
Legislative Assembly (28 May, 1849) ; the position of parties in the 
new Assembly ; the majority were moderates, in favor of parliamentary 
government after the English system, believers in limited monarchy, 
and very suspicious of the " Prince President, whom they suspected of 
planning to restore the Empire ; the minority called itself the Mountain, 
and, under the leadership of Ledru-Rollin, hoped to establish a demo- 
cratic republic. 

The deputies of the Mountain appealed to the people of Paris ; insur- 
rection of 13 June, 1849 ; arrest of the deputies of the Mountain ; their 
expulsion from the Assembly ; escape of Ledru-Rollin. 

The majority of the Legislative Assembly, now frankly reactionary, 
endeavored to establish a bourgeois republic ; influence of Thiers, Ber- 
ryer, Mole, Montalembert (b. 18 10, d. 1870) and De Broglie ; by the 
law of 31 May, 1850, the suffrage was restricted to three years' resi- 
dents in a commune or canton, which practically disfranchised the 
working classes ; declaration of Thiers on this subject. 

The Legislative Assembly on adjourning left a permanent commis- 
sion of deputies to watch the proceedings of the government : disgust 
of the Prince President at this action ; his resolution to appeal to 
France ; his first provincial tour. 



234 The Coup d' ' Etat of 2 December, 185 1. 

The political position in 1851 : the incurable distrust between the 
Prince President and the Assembly ; struggles between the executive 
and legislative authority, and frequent changes of ministry. 

The Prince President, having made himself popular in France by 
provincial tours, declared himself in favor of universal suffrage and the 
sovereignty of the people ; his explanation of the ideas of the Empire ; 
his demand that the Assembly should repeal the law of 31 May, 1850 
(4 Nov., 1851). 

The Coup d'Fytat of 2 Dec, 1851 : the Prince President declared the 
Legislative Assembly dissolved, universal suffrage reestablished, and 
Paris in a state of siege ; the advisers of Louis Napoleon and his 
agents; his half brother, the Due de Morny (b. 181 1, d. 1865), General 
de Saint- Arnaud (b. 1 798, d. 1854), Minister of War, and M. de 
Maupas (b. 1818, d. 1888), Prefect of Police ; arrest of the leading mem- 
bers of the Legislative Assembly ; the troops shoot down opponents of 
the Coup d'Etat in Paris. 

The Prince President submitted a new Constitution to a plebiscite of 
the people, establishing a strong executive and institutions resembling 
those of the Consulate and the Empire ; the Constitution accepted (21 
Dec.) by 7,481,231 votes out of 8, 165,650 votes, and promulgated 14 
Jan., 1852. 

The Prince President's provincial tour of 1852 : his reception ; enthu- 
siasm in the army; his declaration at Bordeaux (9 Oct.) " L' Empire, 
e'est la paix " ; the Senate voted the reestablishment of the Empire 
(7 Nov.); it was voted by a plebiscite (22 Nov.), and the Prince President 
declared himself Napoleon III., Emperor of the French (2 Dec, 1852). 

Authorities : On the history of the second French Republic, see Gamier-Pa- 
ges, Histoire de la Revolution de 1848 ; Louis Blanc, Histoire de la Revolution de 
1848 ; Lamartine, Histoire de la Revolution de 1848 ; Pierre, Histoire de la R.6- 
publique de 1848 ; La Gorce, Histoire de la Seconde Republique francaise ; Spuller, 
Histoire parlementaire de la Seconde Republique ; with Normanby, A Year of 
Revolution ; Odilon Barrot, Memoires ; Falloux, Memoires d'un Royaliste ; Ber- 
ryer, Discours parlementaires ; Thiers, Discours parlementaires, and Veron, Me- 
moires d'un bourgeois ; for the coup d'etat of 185 1, see Maupas, Memoires sur le 
Second Empire ; Persigny, Memoires ; Ollivier, L'Bmpire liberal ; Kinglake, The 
Invasion of the Crimea ; Victor Hugo, Histoire d'un crime ; Tinot, L,e Coup 
d'Etat ; Jerrold, L,ife of Napoleon III. ; Forbes, Life of Napoleon the Third ; De- 
lord, Histoire du Second Empire, and Viel Castel, Memoires. 



Italy from 1830 to 184.8. 235 

LECTURE 74. 



THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 IN ITALY. 

The condition of Italy from the suppression of the insurrectionary 
movement of 1830 by Austria to the outbreak of the revolutions of 
1848 : the work of the Carbonari and of other secret societies ; attempts 
made upon the lives of the Italian princes, and repeated outbreaks in 
different cities and country districts ; complication caused by the very 
existence of the Papacy; the writings of Gioberti (b. 1801, d. 1851) 
and Massimo d'Azeglio (b. 1798, d. 1866). 

Double tendency to be perceived in the popular movements in Italy : 
with regard to government the middle classes desired representative 
institutions and limited monarchy, while the secret societies advocated 
pure democracy ; with regard to the unity of Italy, one section desired 
a federal government either monarchical or republican, while the other 
favored an Italy, one and indivisible, either monarchical or republican ; 
these different tendencies prevented partisans of the national spirit and 
of political revolution from acting harmoniously together ; the most 
influential writer and thinker was Mazzini (b. 1808, d. 1872), but his 
advanced republican ideas made him obnoxious to moderate men. 

Conditions of the different Italian states at the outbreak of the revo- 
lutionary movement in 1848 ; the severe and arbitrary government of 
Naples and Sicily under Ferdinand II. (1830-59), afterwards called 
King Bomba ; unpopularit}^ of the Austrian government in Lombardy 
and Venetia ; Parma, ruled by the Empress Marie Louise, and Modena, 
under Duke Francis IV. (1814-46) and Duke Francis V..were entirely 
under Austrian influence; death of Marie Louise (18 Dec, 1847), an ^ 
accession as Duke of Parma of Charles II., formerly Duke of Lucca ; 
the government of Leopold II., Grand Duke of Tuscany (1824-1859); he 
purchased Lucca (1845), and granted a constitution (1847); Charles 
Albert (b. 1798, d. 1849), King of Sardinia since 1831, was desirous of 
setting himself at the head of the national Italian movement, but feared 
the republicans and the Carbonari ; he favored parliamentary govern- 
ment and granted a constitution to his kingdom in 1846 ; his character 
and ambition. 



236 The Revolution of 184.8 in Italy. 

The worst governed provinces in Italy were those of the States of 
the Church, in which Pope Gregory XVI. ruled in the most arbitrary 
manner with cardinals, bishops and priests as his only ministers and 
administrators ; yet it was in the States of the Church that the first im- 
pulse was given to the revolutionary movement of 1848 ; death of 
Gregory XVI. (1 June, 1846). 

Election of Pope Pius IX. — Mastai-Ferretti — (16 June, 1846); his 
known liberal and national ideas ; his reforms in internal administra- 
tion ; he reorganized the tribunals, established municipal government, 
permitted the raising of civic guards, and allowed a measure of liberty 
to the press ; he proposed a customs -union between the States of the 
Church, Tuscany and Sardinia ; Metternich protested against the re- 
forming policy of Pius IX. ; but the people of Rome accused him of 
not going far enough ; a Fundamental Statute, establishing lay gov- 
ernment and ministerial responsibility, issued (14 March, 1848). 

Outbreak of insurrection at Palermo (12 Jan., 1848), which spread 
through the whole of Sicily ; Ferdinand II., King of the Two Sicilies, 
forced by tumults at Naples to promise a constitution (29 Jan.), which 
was promulgated (10 Feb.). 

Effect of the overthrow of Metternich in Italy ; the people of Milan 
rose in insurrection and expelled the Austrian garrison (18-22 Mch., 
1848) ; formation of a provisional government which appointed Gari- 
baldi (b. 1807, d. 1882) commandant of its troops ; similar movement 
in Venice (16-22 Mch.), where Daniel Manin (b. 1804, d. 1857) was 
elected Dictator ; Francis V. driven from Modena (21 March) ; Charles 
II. driven from Parma (20 March). 

Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, summoned by all Northern Italy, 
set himself at the head of the National movement ; he entered Milan 
(26 Mch.) ; concentration of the Austrian troops under Radetzky 
(b. 1766, d.1858); the Austrians defeated at Goito (8 Apr.); Leopold of 
Tuscany compelled by his people to send troops to assist Charles Albert ; 
Ferdinand II., King of the Two Sicilies, forced to send a fleet to assist 
Venice and an army under Pepe to join Charles Albert ; the papal troops, 
under Durando, joined the Sardinians ; Charles Albert took Peschiera 
(30 May); reinforcements demanded by Radetzky. 

Desperate position of the Austrians in Italy; terms offered to Charles 



"& Italia fara da se." 237 

Albert ; the intervention of England and France declined ; " L' Italia 
fara da se." 

Pope Pius IX. disavowed the action of General Durando (29 April): 
Mamiani appointed Minister of the Interior of the States of the Church 
(4 May). 

Ferdinand II. withdrew his constitution and dissolved the Neapolitan 
parliament (15 May); he vigorously pursued the war with the Sicilian 
insurgents, and called back his fleet from Venice, and his army; never- 
theless, Pepe, with 3,000 men, threw himself into Venice, of which he 
took military command. 

Progress of the revolution in Sicily : Settimo (b. 1778, d. 1863), presi- 
dent of the Sicilian Committee (24 Jan., 1848) ; services of Crispi ; 
Settimo appointed Lieutenant- General of Sicily by Ferdinand II. and 
a Sicilian Parliament summoned (6 March) ; the throne of Sicily offered 
to Ferdinand, Duke of Genoa, second son of Charles Albert (11 July) ; 
his refusal to accept it; bombardment of Messina (2-8 Sept.). 

Radetzky, joined by Nugent (b. 1777, d. 1862), defeated Charles 
Albert at Custozza (25 July) and occupied Milan (6 Aug.) ; armistice 
proclaimed between Sardinia and Austria (9 Aug. ) ; gallant defence of 
Venice ; return of Francis V. to Modena (10 Aug.) ; the Pope dismissed 
Mamiani (2 Aug.), and appointed Rossi (14 Sept.), who desired to 
form an Italian Federation. 

Assassination of Rossi (15 Nov.) ; flight of the Pope to Gaeta (24 
Nov.) ; provisional government of Rome under the triumvirate of Gal- 
letti, Camerata and Corsini (11 Dec); meeting of the Roman Consti- 
tuent Assembly (5 Feb., 1849) : proclamation of the Roman Republic 
(9 Feb.) ; solemn appeal of Pius IX. to the Catholic rulers of Austria, 
France, Spain and the Two Sicilies for help (18 Feb., 1849) ; Mazzini 
made dictator with Armellini and Saffi (30 March) ; Garibaldi ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief. 

Progress of the revolution in Tuscany : Montanelli appointed chief 
minister (26 Oct., 1848) ; a liberal constitution granted ; flight of the 
Grand Duke Leopold II. to Gaeta ; the Florentine Republic proclaimed 
under the triumvirate of Montanelli, Guerrazzi, and Mazzoni (8 Feb., 
1849). 

Difficult position of Charles Albert : forced to form a radical ministry 



238 Failure of the Italian Revolutions. 

under Rattazzi (15 Dec, 1848) ; declared the armistice at an end and 
appealed to united Italy (12 March, 1849) 5 Radetzky utterly defeated 
Charles Albert at Novara (23 Mch.) ; abdication of Charles Albert in 
favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel ; favorable terms of peace granted 
to the Sardinians (6 Aug. ). 

Triumphant progress of the Austrians : Francis V. of Modena com- 
pleted the reoccupation of his duchy (April, 1849) ; overthrow of the 
Florentine Republic and restoration as Grand Duke of Tuscany of Leo- 
pold II. (28 July), who withdrew the constitution he had granted ; 
Charles III., to whom his father had resigned the Duchy of Parma (14 
March), returned to Parma (25 August) ; capitulation of Venice to the 
Austrians (24 August). 

Ferdinand II. cruelly suppressed the Sicilian insurrection ; surrender 
of Palermo to the Neapolitans (11 May, 1849). 

The Prince President of the French Republic, afraid of allowing 
Austria too much predominance in Italy, sent a French army under 
Oudinot to Rome : repulse of the French (30 Apr.) ; the siege of Rome ; 
capture of Rome by the French (3 July) ; Garibaldi withdrew to the 
mountains where his troops were cut up by the Austrians ; return of 
Pius IX. to Rome (12 Apr., 1850) and reestablishment of the Papal 
government under the direction of Cardinal Antonelli ; a French garri- 
son retained in Rome. 

Causes of the entire and disastrous failure of the Italian revolutions 
in 1848: Victor Emmanuel II., King of Sardinia, alone maintained par- 
liamentary government in his dominions. 

Authorities : On the Italian insurrection, see Stillman, The Union of Italy ; 
Martinengo Cesaresco, The Liberation of Italy ; Thayer, The Dawn of Italian In- 
dependence (1814-1849) ; Maurice, The Revolutionary Movement of 1848-49 in 
Italy, Austria and Hungary; Tivaront Storia critica del Risorgimento Italiano ; 
Cant A, Delia Indipendenza Italiana; Ricciardi, Histoire de la Revolution d'ltalie; 
Ultoa, Guerre de l'independance italienne ; Perrens, Deux ans de revolution en 
Italie ; Pepe, Memoires, and Histoire des revolutions et des guerres d'ltalie en 
1847, 1848, et 1849 ! Balleydier, Histoire de la Revolution de Rome; Spada, Storia 
della rivoluzione di Roma e della restaurazione del governo pontifico (1846-49), 
3 vols.; Farini, The Roman State, 1815-50, ed. Gladstone; Bianchi, Storia docu- 
mentata della diplomazia Europea in Italia ; Costa de Beauregard, Les dernieres 
annees du Roi Charles Albert ; Rattazzi, Rattazzi et son temps ; Mazzini, Scritti, 



The National Spirit in the Austrian Dominions. 239 

editi ed inediti ; Nardi, Giuseppe Mazzini, la vita, gli scritti e le dottrine; Simon i, 
Histoiredes conspirations mazziniennes ; Martin, Daniel Manin; Errera, La vita e 
i tempi de Danielo Manin, and Danielo Manin e Venezia ; Manin, Lettere ; Nisco, 
Ferdinando II. eilsuo regno; La Farina, Storia documentata della rivoluzione di 
Sicilia nel 1848-49 ; Montanelli, Memoires; Cantu, Storia ragionata e documentata 
della rivoluzione Lombarda ; Cattaneo, I/insurrection de Milan en 1848; Schonhals, 
Erinnerungen eines (Esterreichischen Veteranen, translated into French as Cam- 
pagnes d'ltalie de 1848-49; Delia Rocca, Autobiography of a Veteran; Garibaldi, Me- 
moirs ; Mario, Garibaldi e i suoi tempi ; Sirao, Storia della rivoluzione d'ltalia 
dal 1846 al 1866; Riistow, Der italienische Krieg von 1848 und 1849, and Hiibner, Une 
annee de ma vie. 



LECTURE 75. 



THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 IN AUSTRIA. 

Internal condition of the Austrian dominions during the reign of the 
Emperor Ferdinand I. (1835-48) ; the home policy of Metternich ; he 
encouraged the national spirit in the different provinces of the Empire 
in order to play off one province against another, but he sternly re- 
pressed all aspirations for self-government. 

The growth of national spirit was especially perceptible in Hungary 
and Bohemia, but it was also to be found in smaller provinces, such as 
Transylvania, Croatia and Galicia ; condition of the German provinces; 
the diverse nationalities of which the Empire was composed, prevented 
any tendency towards union, and encouraged schemes of federation or 
of entire independence. 

The national spirit in Hungary : the amount of local self-government 
allowed to the Magyars ; the growth of Magyar literature and of 
attachment to the Magyar language ; the national spirit of Hungary 
becomes, under the guidance of its men of letters, also democratic ; the 
Diet of 1833 abolished serfdom ; attitude of the Magyars towards other 
nationalities within the limits of Hungary ; influence of Szechenyi 
(b. 1792, d. 1860), Kossuth (b. 1802, d. 1894), Deak (b. 1803, d. 1876) 
and Petofi (b. 1823, d. 1849). 

The national spirit in Bohemia : revival of the Czech language and 



240 The Overthrow of Metternich. 

literature ; the Czechs desired to place themselves at the head of the 
Austrian Slavs ; in Bohemia, as in Hungary, the national spirit became 
also democratic, and demands were made, not only for national, but 
also for popular government ; influence of Dobrovski (b. 1753, d. 1829), 
Kollar(b. 1793. <*• 1852) and Palacky (b. 1798, d. 1876). 

The German spirit concentrated in Vienna, where democratic ideas, 
resembling those in vogue among the working classes in Paris and 
Berlin, had taken deep root. 

Effect of the news of the Revolution of February in Austria : insur- 
rection of 13 March in Vienna ; the Emperor Ferdinand dismissed 
Metternich from office; flight of the disgraced minister to England ; 
Ficquelmont appointed minister (20 March); the Emperor promulgated 
a representative constitution (25 April). 

Effect of the fall of Metternich upon the Austrian provinces : general 
demand for liberty and popular government. 

The Hungarian Diet seized the opportunity to demand the formation 
of a responsible Hungarian ministry with entire self-government ; the 
Emperor yielded (17 March), and the Palatine of Hungary, the Arch- 
duke Stephen, appointed Louis Batthyany prime minister, with 
Kossuth as Minister of the Interior ; delight of the Magyars at this 
success ; a Constituent Diet summoned to draw up a constitution for 
Hungary. 

The Emperor further held out hopes of constitutions and self-govern- 
ment to the Slavonic Provinces (March to April) : a Pan-Slavonic as- 
sembly summoned to meet at Prague on 31 May. 

Effect of the insurrection in the Austrian provinces in Italy : defeat 
of Radetzky at Goito (8 April) ; the Emperor obliged to strip his home 
dominions of troops in order to send reinforcements to Radetzky. 

Dissatisfaction of the people of Vienna at the prospect of the Austrian 
Empire being split into autonomous provinces : disgust of the working 
classes at the non-recognition of democratic principles ; dismissal of 
Ficquelmont (4 May) ; second popular insurrection in Vienna (15 May); 
a Constituent Assembly for the whole Austrian Empire called to meet 
in Vienna ; the Emperor Ferdinand escaped to Innsbruck (17 May) and 
threw himself upon the fidelity of the Tyrolese. 

Desperate position of the Austrian monarchy : seeming approach of 



The Revolution of 184.8 in Austria. 241 

disintegration ; the strength of the opposition to Austria in Italy, 
Hungary and Bohemia; attitude of the Parliament of Frankfort towards 
the Hapsburgs; desire expressed to keep Austria out of reconstituted 
Germany. 

In the diversity of aims of the different revolutions the Hapsburg 
monarchy found safety ; the Emperor Ferdinand, to please his German 
subjects, resolved to act vigorously against the Slavs. 

Insurrection of the Poles at Cracow (26 Apr.) suppressed; Francis 
Stadion (b. 1806, d. 1853) pacified Galicia and granted reforms. 

The Pan-Slavonic Congress opened by Palacky at Prague (2 June); 
a popular demonstration against Windischgratz (b. 1787, d. 1862), the 
Austrian governor of Prague, ended in street-fighting (12-14 June); 
bombardment of the city (15-17 June); end of the Pan-Slavonic Con- 
gress ; reduction of Bohemia to obedience. 

In Transylvania the Magyars and Germans, who controlled the prov- 
incial Estates, voted to unite Transylvania with Hungary (30 May), 
because the Romanian population demanded equal rights in the gov- 
ernment ; an insurrection in the Danubian provinces (22-25 June) 
brought about the occupation of those provinces by the Russians and 
the Turks. 

At the demand of the southern Slavs the Emperor appointed Jelia- 
chich (b. 1801, d. 1859), Ban of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia (23 
Mar.); popular movement for a united kingdom of the southern Slavs, 
independent of Hungary ; the Hungarian ministry persuaded the Em- 
peror to disgrace Jellachich (10 June). 

Progress of the revolution in Hungary ; meeting of the Constituent 
Diet (5 July); the new Hungarian constitution ; influence of Kossuth ; 
the Magyars issued oppressive decrees against the Slavs and Romanians 
in Croatia, Slavonia, Dalmatia, Transylvania and the Banat of 
Temesvar ; insurrections in those districts against the Magyars ; the 
Russians in Transylvania. 

The Constituent Assembly, containing representatives of all parts of 
the Empire, except Hungary, met at Vienna (22 July); the Archduke 
John, who had been elected Vicar of the Empire at Frankfort (29 June), 
returned to represent the Emperor at Vienna; the Constituent Assembly 
abolished the corvee, noble-land and other relics of feudalism. 



242 Windischgratz and Schwarzenberg. 

After the news of the victory of Custozza (25 July), the Emperor 
resolved to act more firmly against Hungary ; he reentered Vienna 
(12 Aug.); he restored Jellachich to all his dignities (4 Sept.); Jellach- 
ich invaded Hungary (9 Sept.); the Diet prepared to resist and chose 
Kossuth, President of the Committee of Public Safety (22 Sept.); the 
Palatine of Hungary, the Archduke Stephen, refused to obey the Diet 
and escaped to Vienna (24 Sept.); I^amberg, who was sent to replace 
the Palatine, murdered at Pesth (28 Sept.); the Emperor declared the 
Hungarian Diet dissolved, appointed Jellachich, Commissioner Plenipo- 
tentiary in Hungary, and ordered the army to suppress the revolt (3 
Oct.). 

Third insurrection in Vienna (6 Oct.); sympathizers with the Mag- 
yars attempted to prevent troops from reinforcing Jellachich in Hun- 
gary ; murder of Latour, the Minister of War ; flight of the Emperor 
to Olmiitz ; he directed the Constituent Assembly to leave Vienna (20 
Oct.) and to assemble at Kremsier ; only the Slav deputies obeyed ; the 
German deputies remained in Vienna to form a provisional government ; 
they negotiated with the German Parliament at Frankfort, which recog- 
nized them and sent Robert Blum and two other deputies to their as- 
sistance ; Jellachich, from Hungary, and Windischgratz, from Prague, 
hastened against the insurgents ; bombardment of Vienna ; attempt of 
the Magyars to relieve the city ; Windischgratz entered Vienna (31 
Oct.), established martial law, and shot Robert Blum (8 Nov.); wrath 
of the Parliament of Frankfort. 

Schwarzenberg (b. 1800, d. 1852) appointed chief minister (21 Nov.); 
reopening of the Constituent Assembly at Kremsier (22 Nov.), but 
Schwarzenberg occupied it in aimless discussions ; abdication of the 
Emperor Ferdinand (2 Dec.) in favor of his nephew Francis Joseph (b. 
1830). 

Vigorous policy of Schwarzenberg : Kossuth and the Diet forced to 
withdraw from Pesth to Debreczin (1 Jan., 1849) ; Windischgratz and 
Jellachich occupied Pesth (5 Jan.) ; formation of Hungarian armies, 
placed under the command of Dombrovski, Bern and Gorgei; Schwarz- 
enberg dissolved the Diet of Kremsier (4 Mar.) and promised a unitary 
constitution to the Austrian Empire and the recognition of the equality 
of the various nationalities ; Kossuth and the Diet declared the inde- 



End of the Insurrection in Hungary. 243 

pendence of Hungary (14 Apr.) ; Kossuth chosen Governor- President ; 
Gorgei recaptured the fortress of Buda (21 May) ; return of the Hun- 
garian government to Pesth (5 June). 

The Emperor Francis Joseph announced (1 May, 1849) that the Tsar 
Nicholas had consented to assist in subduing the Magyars ; a Russian 
army under Paskievitch entered Hungary (May) ; the armies under 
Paskievitch, Haynau, Nugent and Jellachich defeated the Hungarian 
armies and drove them toward the Turkish frontier ; Kossuth resigned 
in favor of Gorgei (11 Aug.) and escaped into Turkey ; capitulation of 
Gorgei at Vilagos (13 Aug.); Klapka held out at Komorn until 27 Sept., 
when he was forced to sign a capitulation by which he surrendered the 
place (4 Oct. ) ; atrocities committed by Haynau ; execution of Batthy- 
any and the leading Magyar generals (6 Oct.) ; end of the insurrection 
in Hungary. 

End of the insurrection in Italy : capture of Venice (24 Aug., 1849). 

The German policy of Schwarzenberg : his attitude toward the Parlia- 
ment of Frankfort ; he prevented Frederick William IV. of Prussia 
from accepting the imperial throne offered to him by the Parliament, 
and insisted upon the right of Austria to be treated as a constituent 
part of Germany. 

Authorities : Leger, Histoire de l'Autriche-Hongrie, translated by Hill ; Mau-> 
rice, The Revolution ar}' Movement of 1848-49 in Italy, Austria and Hungary ; Bal- 
leydier, Histoire des Revolutions de l'Empire de 1'Autriche ; Piliersdorf, Riick- 
blick auf die politische Bewegung in CEsterreich in den Jahren 1848 und 1849 ; 
■Ficquelmont, Aufklarungen iiber die Zeit vom 20 Marz bis zum 4 Mai 1848 ; Frobel, 
Briefe iiber die Wiener Oktober-Revolution, mit Notizen iiber die letzten Tage 
Robert Blums ; Auerbach, Tagebuch aus Wien ; Hubner, Une Annee de ma Vie , 
Helfert, Geschiehte CEsterreichs vom Ausgange des Wiener Oktober-Aufstandes ; 
Berger, Felix, Fiirst zu Schwarzenberg ; Windischgratz, Eine Lebens-Skizze, aus 
den Papieren eines Zeit-genossen der Sturmjahre 1848 und 1S49 ; Reschauer, Das 
Jahr, 1848; Bach, Die Wiener Revolution, 1848; Yranyi and Chassin, Histoire 
politique de la Revolution de Hongrie en 1847-49 '■> Bury, Souvenirs et Recits 
des Campagnes d'Autriche ; Martin, Guerre de Hongrie en 1848 et 1849 ; Riistow, 
Geschiehte des ungarischen Insurrectionskrieges in den Jahren 1848 und 1849 ; 
Gorgei, Mein Leben und Wirken in Ungarn ; Klapka, Der Nationalkrieg in Un- 
garn und Siebenbiirgen, of which there is an English translation, and Kossuth, 
Memoirs. 



244 Insurrections in Berlin and Munich. 

LECTURE 76. 



THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 IN GERMANY. 

Effect of the Revolution of February in Germany : general desire for 
popular government in Western Germany ; the states upon the Rhine 
and in the former kingdom of Westphalia were especially forward in 
this direction ; there had been numerous riots in Rhenish Prussia, Hesse- 
Cassel and Brunswick ; as in Italy, the national spirit and the demo- 
cratic movement were sometimes in harmony and sometimes opposed 
to each other ; one section of advocates of German unity looked to 
Prussia to lead them ; the other, which was more democratic, hoped for 
an independent and possibly republican German nation. 

Both the national and the democratic spirit were most evident in the 
smaller states and in Rhenish Prussia : but they were also developed to 
some extent in the South German states of Bavaria under King Louis 
I. (1825-1848), of Wiirtemberg under King William I. (1816-1864), 
and of Baden under the Grand Duke Charles Leopold (1830-1852), 
while in Hanover under Ernest I. (1837-1851) they were especially de- 
veloped. 

The share of the German universities in promoting the national and 
liberal spirit ; the dismissal of Gervinus, Dahlmann, Ewald and the 
two Grimms, from their chairs at Gottingen, for protesting against the 
abolition of the Hanoverian constitution by Ernest I. in 1837. 

The first effect of the Revolution of February was seen in risings in 
the great cities, similar to those which occurred in Paris and in Vienna ; 
the most important of the risings were in Berlin and in Munich. 

The first insurrection in Berlin (15-19 March, 1848): Frederick Wil- 
liam IV. (b. 1795, d. 1 861) gave way before the popular feeling; sent his 
brother and heir, Prince William (b. 1797, d. 1888), who was suspected 
of opposition to popular wishes, to England; convoked the States-Gen- 
eral, and summoned a Constituent Assembly to draw up a constitution 
for Prussia (22 March). 

Insurrection in Munich against King Louis I. (b. 1786, d. 1868), who 
was accused of showing too much favor to his mistress, Lola Montes ; 



The Parliament of Frankfort. 245 

he abdicated the throne (20 March) in favor of his son Maximilian 
Joseph II. (b. 18 1 1, d. 1864), who promised reforms. 

A group of German patriots and unionists met at Heidelberg (5 
March) and summoned a Vor-Parlament, which assembled at Frankfort 
(31 March); this assembly convoked a Constituent Parliament, to be 
elected by universal suffrage by the whole of Germany, which should 
organize a federal German government under a monarch ; it was re- 
solved that the decisions of this Constituent Parliament should be 
final, and not subject to the control of the Federal Diet. 

The Federal Diet, established by the Congress of Vienna, withdrew 
its decrees of 1832-34, controlling state governments, and then ceased 
to oppose the new movement. 

In the face of the strength of the revolutionary movement the Ger- 
man Princes permitted elections to the Constituent Parliament. 

Meeting of this Parliament in St. Paul's church at Frankfort (18 
May, 1848), with Heinrich von Gagern (b. 1799, d. 1880) as its presi- 
dent ; it elected the Archduke John of Austria as Vicar of the Empire 
(29 June); he took office (12 July), dissolved the Federal Diet, and 
appointed Schmerling chief minister; the Parliament of Frankfort, 
with long debates, drew up the "Grundrechte," or bases of a German 
Constitution (July-Oct.) ; the undemocratic nature of this scheme 
caused protests from many of the cities of Germany. 

The position in Prussia : Frederick William IV. took advantage of 
the condition of affairs in Denmark to stand forward as the defender of 
German interests. 

Death of Christian VIII. of Denmark and accession of Frederick VII. 
(20 Jan., 1848); the king promised (28 Jan.) to summon a Constituent 
Assembly, chosen by universal suffrage, to draw up a Constitution 
which should unify Denmark and the Duchies of Schleswig and Hol- 
stein, in spite of the latter being parts of the Germanic Confederation ; 
wrath in Germany at this news ; insurrection in the duchies (18 Mar.); 
demand made for the entire separation of Schleswig-Holstein from Den- 
mark and their union with Germany ; provisional government for the 
duchies established by tfte insurgents at Kiel (24 Mar.); the Duke of 
Augustenburg set himself at the head of this opposition in the two 
duchies ; the Danes routed the insurgents near Flensburg (9 April), 



246 The Revolution of 184.8 in Germany. 

but Prussia, with the sanction of the Parliament of Frankfort, invaded 
the duchies, defeated the Danish army (23 Apr.), and had almost con- 
quered the whole of Denmark, when the Great Powers intervened and 
insisted on the signature of the Armistice of Malmo (26 Aug.). 

Frederick William IV. of Prussia, though he showed himself by his 
conduct in Denmark in favor of German interests, also showed himself 
the enemy of democracy ; at the request of the Parliament of Frank- 
fort he sent Prussian troops to that city to put down a republican insur- 
rection (18 Sept.), and then, also at their request, put down democratic 
risings throughout the Rhenish territories. 

Second insurrection in Berlin (31 Oct., 1848); the king appointed 
Brandenburg (b. 1792, d. 1850) and Manteuffel (b. 1805, d. 1882) his 
ministers (3 Nov.), declared Berlin in a state of siege (10 Nov.), dis- 
solved the Prussian Constituent Assembly which had shown in the 
Junker party a strong minority opposed to democratic ideas (5 Dec), 
and issued of his own authority a new constitution for Prussia, giving 
a moderate amount of representative government (5 Dec). 

Later history of the Parliament of Frankfort ; Gagern succeeded 
Schmerling as chief minister (15 Dec, 1848) ; completion of the new 
German Constitution (3 Feb., 1849), with two chambers, the Volkhaus, 
elected by universal suffrage, and the Staatenhaus, chosen by the par- 
liaments of the different states ; it recognized no direct representation 
of the German princes, and gave to the supreme executive authority 
only a suspensive veto. 

The question of the admission of Austria, with her non-German popu- 
lations, as part of the new German Empire ; it was resolved that Aus- 
tria should be completely excluded (14 Jan., 1849); the imperial crown 
offered to Frederick William IV. of Prussia (28 Mar.); he declined to 
accept unless invited by the princes of Germany (3 Apr.), and eventu- 
ally, under the influence of Schwarzenberg, refused unconditionally 
(28 Apr.). 

Indignation of Schwarzenberg at the decree of 14 Jan.; he with- 
drew the Austrian deputies from the Parliament of Frankfort (5 Apr.). 

Last days of the Parliament of Frankfort ; Gagern resigned office 
(10 May), and with his followers formed a secession parliament which 
met at Gotha (26-28 June); Prussia withdrew its deputies (14 May); 



Failure of the German Revohitions. 247 

the Parliament, reduced to 105 members, forced to leave Frankfort (30 
May) ; it met at Stuttgart and eventually was broken up b3' the King of 
Wtirtemberg (18 June). 

Frederick William IV. of Prussia lent troops to the Kings of Saxony 
and Hanover to establish order in their dominions (June) ; under the 
command of Prince William of Prussia order was also reestablished by 
Prussian soldiers in Baden and along the Rhine (July). 

Continuation of the Danish war : Frederick VII. of Denmark granted 
a liberal constitution (5 June, 1849); gallant struggle of the Danes 
against the Prussians ; conclusion of peace (2 July, 1850) ; it was 
eventually arranged that the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein should 
be garrisoned by a joint force of Austrians and Prussians, and that 
their fate should be decided by a conference of the Great Powers. 

Result of the revolutionary movement of 1848 in Germany ; entire 
failure both of the democratic party and of the supporters of the parlia- 
mentary system ; postponement of the unity of Germany. 

Authorities : There are several reports of the proceedings of the Parliament of 
Frankfort, of which the most complete is Wigard, Stenographische Bericht, 9 
vols.; see also Duncker, Zur Geschichte der deutschen Reichsversammlung in 
Frankfurt ; Haym, Die deutsche Nationalversammlung ; Raumer, Briefe aus 
Frankfurt und Paris ; Biedermann, Erinnerungen aus der Paulskirche ; Ranke, 
Politische Denkschriften aus den Jahren 1848-1851 (Werke, vols. 49, 50); Deym, 
Graf Deym und die CFsterreichische Frage in der Paulskirche ; Becker, Die Reak- 
tion in Deutschland gegen die Revolution von 1848 ; Sybel, Die Begriindung des 
deutschen Reiches ; Moltke, Geschichte des Krieges gegen Danemark, 1848-49, 
and Bunsen, Memoirs. 



LECTURE 77. 



EUROPE AFTER THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848. 

The revolutionary movement of 1848 in England ; the Chartists ; 
results of the abolition of the Corn-laws. 

The revolutionary movement of 1848 in Holland : the reign of 
William II. (1840-49) ; succeeded by William III. (17 March, 1849) ; 



248 The Danubian Provinces in 184.8. 

the representative constitution of the kingdom of the Netherlands re- 
modelled in a more liberal sense; administration of Thorbecke (b. 1798, 
d. 1872). 

The revolutionary movement of 1848 in Belgium : excitement caused 
by the news of the Revolution of February ; Leopold I. evaded a re- 
publican movement by skillful policy ; his ability as a parliamentary 
sovereign. 

The revolutionary movement of 1848 in the two Danubian provinces: 
growth of national Romanian sentiment and of liberalism ; attitude 
towards the Slavs and Magyars ; resentment against Russia ; influence 
of France ; deposition of Alexander Ghica and election of George 
Bibesco as Hospodar of Wallachia (1842) ; attempted insurrection at 
Jassy (27 March, 1848); prudent conduct of Michael Stourza, Hospodar 
of Moldavia; insurrection at Bucharest (22 June, 1848) ; abdication of 
Bibesco (25 June) ; intervention of Russia and the Turks ; Russian 
and Turkish troops occupied the two provinces; by the Convention of 
Balta-Liman (12 May, 1849), the hospodarship for seven years was 
revived, the assemblies of boyars were suppressed and replaced by 
divans nominated by the princes, and Russian and Turkish troops were 
to garrison the two provinces until they were organized; resignation of 
Michael Stourza ; appointment of Gregory Ghica as Hospodar of 
Moldavia, and of Barbe Stirbeiu as Hospodar of Wallachia. 

Influence exercised by Prussia in Germany after the suppression of 
the revolutionary movement : Frederick William IV. hoped to exclude 
Austria and to be chosen Emperor by the princes of Germany ; the 
League of the Three Kings — Prussia, Saxony and Hanover (26 May, 
1849) ; scheme of a Restricted Union ; Prussia prepared a scheme for 
a united Germany under her leadership to be submittted to a revived 
German Parliament at Erfurt and to the German princes ; only the 
petty princes accepted the Prussian scheme. 

Austria, having put down all rebellion and supported by Russia, re- 
solved to intervene : the Archduke John resigned his authority as Vicar 
of the Empire to a committee of four, appointed half by Austria and half 
by Prussia (20 Dec, 1849). 

Beust's scheme of a Middle Germany : treaty of alliance made be- 
tween Saxony, Bavaria and Wiirtemberg (27 Feb., 1850). 



Austria and Prussia after 184.8. 249 

The Parliament of Erfurt (20 Mar.-2g Apr., 1850) : only attended by- 
Prussia and representatives of the petty princes ; part played by Bis- 
marck (b. 1815, d. 1898) ; the Parliament refused to accept the Prussian 
scheme, followed by a similar refusal by the German princes, who had 
been assembled at Berlin (8 May). 

Growing influence of Austria in German affairs during the ministry of 
Schwarzenberg : ad interim revival of the Diet of the Germanic Con- 
federation or Bundestag (2 Sept., 1850), which undertook to deal with 
the disturbances in Schleswig-Holstein and Hesse-Cassel ; opposition 
of Prussia ; approach of war ; the Prussian and the German federal 
troops, supported by Austria, faced each other in Hesse-Cassel; the Tsar 
Nicholas intervened and threatened to attack whichever side began 
war. 

Frederick William IV. yielded : Manteuffel (b. 1805, d. 1882) ap- 
pointed provisional Minister of Foreign Affairs (2 Nov., 1850), and 
Minister-President (19 Dec, 1850); the Convention of Olmiitz (29 Nov., 

1850) ; apologies of Prussia ; restoration of the Bundestag (30 May, 

1851) ; Bismarck appointed Prussian representative in the Bundestag 
at Frankfort. 

Negotiations for the renewal of the Zollverein : endeavors of Austria 
to enter the Union ; opposition of Prussia ; the Steuerverein declared 
its readiness to enter the Zollverein (7 Sept., 1851) ; reconstitution of 
the Zollverein on this basis, with Austria excluded (4 Apr., 1853). 

General reaction in Germany : most of the German princes withdrew 
or modified the constitutions they had granted in 1848 ; the Bundestag 
repudiated the " Grundrechte " decreed by the Parliament of Frankfort 
(23 Aug., 1851). 

The reaction in Prussia : repressive administration of Manteuffel ; 
Prince William commenced to reorganize the army. 

The reaction in Austria ; the Emperor Francis Joseph withdrew the 
Constitution of 4 March, 1849 (31 Dec, 1851); death of Schwarzenberg 
(5 April, 1852) ; appointment of Buol-Schauenstein as chief Austrian 
minister. 

Temporary settlement of the Schleswig-Holstein question : Frederick 
VII., of Denmark, issued a unitary constitution for all his dominions 
(28 Jan., 1852) ; Prince Christian of Gliicksburg recognized as heir to 
throne of Denmark by the Conference of L,ondon (8 May, 1852). 



250 The Emperor Napoleon III. 

The institutions of the Second Empire in France : relations of the 
government to the Council of State, the Senate and the Legislative 
Body ; while granting the widest extension of the franchise for electing 
the Legislative Body, the administration systematically interfered to pro- 
mote the election of government candidates. 

Napoleon III. and his ministers : the Bonapartists and some of the 
partisans of the Monarchy of July rallied to him, but he had to face the 
opposition of the Legitimists and the Republicans ; he was unfortunate 
in the selection of ministers and had to make use of men of doubtful 
honesty in the work of administration ; the influence of the Due de 
Moray, Persigny (b. 1808, d. 1872), Rouher and Maupas. 

Parliamentary opposition during the Second Empire : Thiers ; exile 
or deportation of the leading Republicans. 

Attitude of the Great Powers towards the Second Empire : England, 
hoping for the assistance of France in the settlement of the Eastern 
Question, at once recognized him as Emperor ; the Tsar Nicholas recog- 
nized him in an insulting fashion, and was followed by Austria and 
Prussia (6 Jan., 1853); Napoleon's first foreign ministers; Drouyn de 
Lhuys (b. 1805, d. 1881) and Walewski (b. 1810, d. 1868). 

Being unable to obtain the hand of a foreign princess, Napoleon III. 
married Eugenie de Montijo, Comtesse de Teba (29 Jan., 1853). 

Internal policy of Napoleon III. : he professed, owing to his election 
by plibiscite, to represent the sovereignty of the people, and stood forth 
as the opponent of bourgeois or middle class politics ; he exploited the 
wealth of France in extravagant buildings and public works ; Paris re- 
built by Haussmann ; corruption of the administration ; attempts of 
Napoleon III. to blind the people by a vigorous foreign policy. 

Foreign policy of Napoleon III.; though he declared the Empire to 
mean peace, he really desired war, in order to establish himself firmly 
at home and abroad. 

Authorities : For the general history of this period see, in addition to Seigno- 
bos, Debidour, and Fyffe, cited under Lecture 67; Rothan, L'Europeet l'avenement 
du Second Empire ; Vitzthum von Eckstddt, Berlin und Wien in den Jahren 1845- 
1852, and Viel-Castel, Memoirs ; for the Second Empire, Delord, Histoire du 
Second Empire ; La Gorce, Histoire du Second Empire ; Jerrold, Life of Napoleon 
ITL: Harcourt, Les quatre ministeres de M. Drouyn de Lhuys ; Maugny, Souven- 



The Romantic Movement in Literature. 251 

irs of the Second Empire ; Falloux, Memoires d'un royaliste ; Persigny, Memoires; 
Haussmann, Memoires ; Otlivier, L'Empire liberal ; Senior, Conversations, 2 
series ; Castellatie, Journal, and Thiers, Discours parlementaires ; for Germany, 
see Berger, Felix, Fiirst zu Schwarzenberg ; Bunsen, Memoirs ; Beust, Memoirs ; 
Lowe, Life of Prince Bismarck ; Bismarck, Gedenkschriften und Erinnerungen, 
translated by Butler, Gesammelte Werke, and Politische Reden ; Hahn, Fiirst 
Bismarck ; Kohl, Fiirst Bismarck ; Poschinger, Fiirst Bismarck, and Simon, 
Histoire du Prince de Bismarck ; for English foreign policy, Martin, Life of the 
Prince Consort ; Dalling and Ashley, Eife of Eord Palmerston ; Wal'pole, Life of 
Lord John Russell, and Malmesbury, Memoirs of an ex-Minister ; for Belgium, 
Juste, Leopold I. et Leopold IE, rois des Beiges, leur vie etleur regne; Thonissen, 
La Belgique sous le regne de Leopold E, and Hymans, Histoire parlementaire de 
Belgique de 1830 a. 1880; for Holland, Bosch-Kemper, Geschiedenis van Neder- 
land na 1830 ; and for Romania, Xenopol, Histoire des Roumains, and Bibesco, 
Regne de Bibesco (1829-59;. 



LECTURE 78. 



LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY FROM 1789 To 1848. 

Effect of the French Revolution and of Napoleon's conquests on 
European literature ; political unrest accompanied by a great literary 
outburst ; this not so noticeable in France, where politics absorbed the 
nation, as in England and Germany; the spirit of nationality aroused 
by Napoleon began to show its effect before Waterloo. 

The period between 18 15 and 1848 was marked by the romantic 
movement in literature, which developed independently all over Europe : 
causes of the romantic movement ; reaction against classicism ; its de- 
velopment affected, in some writers, by revival of Christian religious 
sentiment, as in Chateaubriand ; in others, by a new sympathy with the 
Middle Ages, as in Scott and Hugo ; in others, by love of nature and 
an attempt to interpret her, as in Wordsworth ; in others, by a mystic 
sentimentalism, as in Jean Paul Richter ; and in others, by a pessimistic 
self-consciousness, as in Byron, Lamartine and Pushkin. 

The feeling for nationality showed itself in literature, after an out- 
burst of patriotic poetry, in the revival of the study of history ; over- 



252 Literature from 1J89 to 184.8. 

throw of national legends and beginning of scientific history ; influence 
of Niebuhr ; interest taken in the history of the Middle Ages ; com- 
mencement of the systematic publication of documents ; the English 
Record Commission (1802), the Monumenta Germanics Historica (1826), 
the Documents inedits sur Vhistoire de France (1835); the foundation of 
the Fycole des Chartes (1821). 

French literature of the Revolution : its political character ; the great 
orators and their written speeches; Mirabeau (1749-1791); Vergniaud 
(1759-1793); Robespierre (1758-1794); political journalism ; Camille 
Desmoulins (1762-1794); the Revolutionary drama ; Collot d'Herbois 
(1750-1796); Marie Joseph Chenier (1764-1811); poetry; Andre Che- 
nier (1763-1794); criticism ; La Harpe (1739-1803). 

French literature of the Empire ; its classicism and sterility ; Ducis 
(1733-1816); Fontanes (1757-1821); Napoleon's attitude towards liter- 
ature ; his admiration of the so-called poems of Ossian ; the most popu- 
lar French writer of the period, Madame de Stael (1766-1817); publi- 
cation of Chateaubriand's Le Genie du Christianisme (1802) and of Les 
Martyrs (1809). 

The romantic movement in France; Chateaubriand (1767- 1848); 
Lamartine (1792-1869); Alfred de Vigny (1799-1863); Victor Hugo 
(1802-1885); Alfred de Musset (1810-1857); Theophile Gautier (1811- 
1872). 

French literature in the reign of Louis Philippe generally influenced 
by the romantic movement; history; Sismondi (1773-1842); Guizot 
( 1 787-1 874); Mignet (1796- 1884); Thierry (1 797-1 873); Thiers (1797- 
1877); Michelet (1798-1874); drama; Eugene Scribe (1791-1861); Casi- 
mir Delavigne (1793-1843); poetry; Beranger (1780-1857); fiction; 
Balzac (1799- 1850); Alexandre Dumas, the elder (1803- 18 70); Georges 
Sand (1804-1876). 

English literature ; romanticism in England : the two groups of poets ; 
Byron (1788-1824); his influence in Europe ; Shelley (1792-1822); Keats 
(1795- 1 821) : the Lake poets ; Wordsworth (1 770-1 850) ; Coleridge 
(1772-1834) ; Southey (1774-1843) : the Victorian poets ; Browning 
(1802-1889); Tennyson (1809-1892); the influence of Scott (1771-1832) 
as poet and novelist : English prose writers ; DeQuincey (1785-1859); 
Carlyle (1795-1881) ; Macaulay (1800-1859) : history ; Grote (1794- 



Literature from ij8g to 184.8. 253 

1871); Thomas Arnold (1795-1842) : fiction; Thackeray (181 1-1 863) ; 
Dickens (181 2-1870) : criticism; Hazlitt (1778-1830) : the representa- 
tives of the ideas of 1848 in English literature ; Maurice (1 805-1 872) ; 
Charles Kingsley (1819-1875). 

German literature : its greatest period, that of the French Revolution 
and Napoleon ; the supremacy of Goethe (1 749-1 832) ; his influence ; 
the effect of the French Revolution on German literature ; Herder (1744- 
1803); Fichte (1762-1814): beginning of a feeling for German national- 
ity ; Schiller (1759-1805) ; influence of his historical and dramatic 
works : enthusiasm for German nationality aroused by the Napoleonic 
conquest; Arndt (1769-1860) ; Korner (1791-1813): history; Niebuhr 
(1776-1831) ; Ranke (1795-1886) ; Droysen (1808-1884) : influence of 
the universities on German literature : romanticism in Germany; its 
mysticism; Jean Paul Richter (1763-1825); Tieck (1773-1853); De la 
MotteFouque(i777-i843): criticism; Schlegel (1 767-1 845): theSwab- 
ian poets ; Uhland (1787-1862): the isolated greatness of Heine (1810- 
1856), as poet and prose writer. 

Italian literature : influence of romanticism ; Ugo Foscolo (1777- 
1827); Leopardi (1798-1837); Silvio Peliico (1789-1854): fiction; Man- 
zoni (1784-1873) : history; Botta (1766-1837) ; Colletta (1775-1833) ; 
Cantu (1805-1895); Amari (1806-1889): the national movement in Italy 
and its effect on Italian literature : the political writings of Balbo 
(1789-1853); Gioberti (1801-1851); and Mazzini (1808-1872). 

Spanish literature : special attention paid to the study of history ; 
the leading historians; Masdeu (1740-1817) ; Conde (1760-1821) ; 
Navarette (1765-1844) ; Toreno (1786-1843). 

Portuguese literature ; its nationalist character and effect in destroy- 
ing the Iberianist idea: poetry; Almeida- Garrett (1799-1854); Castilho 
( 1 800-1 875) : revival of the study of history ; its leader, Herculano 
(1810-1877). 

Scandinavian literature : its tendency to bring together Sweden and 
Denmark : Swedish poetry ; Tegner (1 782-1 846) : history ; Geijer 
(1783-1847) ; Fryxell (1795-1881) : Danish poetry ; Ohlenschlager 
(1779-1850) : prose; Hans Christian Andersen (1805-1875). 

Russian literature : its first national development ; the historian, 
Karamsin (1765-1826); the fabulist, Krilov ( 1 768-1 844) ; influence of 



254 Philosophy from iySg to 1S4.S. 

romanticism in Russia: Pushkin (1 799-1 S37): commencement of mod- 
ern Russian literature: Gogol (1810-1851); Lerniontov (1811-1841), 

Intense nationalism the characteristic of the literature of oppressed peo- 
ples ; Poland: poetry, Michiewicz (1798-1855)] history, Chodzko (1S00- 
1S71) ; Bohemia: history, Palacky (179S-1S76) ; Hungary: poetry, 
Petofi (1823-1849). 

The chief development of philosoph}^ during this period was in Ger- 
many : Fichte (1762-1814) ; Schleiermacher ( J76S-1834) ; Hegel (1770- 
1831); Schelling ( 1 775-1 854) ; Herbart (1776-1841); Schopenhauer 
(1788-1860). 

The attempt made to interpret German philosoph}* to France : Cousin 
(1792-1867); the positivist philosophy : Comte (179S-1S57); the reaction 
to Christianity : Lamennais (1782- 1S54); Lacordaire (1S02-1S61); Mon- 
talembert (1S10-1S70). 

Political philosophy in France : the ideas of the French philosophers 
of the 1 8th centur}' put into action during the French Revolution ; 
reaction against them under Napoleon ; growth of the socialist philoso- 
phy : Saint-Simon (1760-1825); Fourier (1772-1S37) ; Proudhon 
(1S09-1S65). 

The Utilitarian philosophy in England: Beutham (1748-1832); James 
Mill (1773-1836); John Stuart Mill (1S06-1S73) ; the application of phil- 
osophy to jurisprudence: Austin (1 790-1 S67); political philosophy: 
Sir G. C. Lewis (1S06-1863); the Scottish school of philosophy : Du- 
gald Stewart (1753-1828) ; Hamilton (1788-1856). 

Growth in political importance of political economj' ; its chief ex- 
ponents in England after the death of Adam Smith : Mai thus (1764- 
1854) ; Ricardo (1772-1823) ; John Stuart Mill (1S06-1S73) J U1 France : 
J. B Say (1767-1S32) ; in Germany : List (1789-1846). 



LECTURE 79. 



ART AND SCIENCE FROM 17S9 TO 1S4S. 

Art at the commencement of this period was dominated by classical 
ideals ; the influence of the French Revolution on art enforced this 



Art and Music from ij8g to 184.8. 255 

spirit, and during the Napoleonic era classicism became conven- 
tional ; after the fall of Napoleon the romantic movement greatly 
influenced art, and produced a reaction against both classicism and con- 
ventionality. 

The French painters: the classical school: David (1 748-1 825) ; his 
career during the Revolution and his influence on French art ; his 
greatness as a draughtsman ; his career under the Empire ; his pupils : 
Gros (1771-1835) ; reaction to romanticism and realism: Ingres 
(1781-1867) ; Horace Vernet (1789-1863) ; Gericault (1790-1824) ; Dela- 
croix (1 798-1 863) ; Flandrin (1 809-1 864). 

The English painters : Constable (1766-1837) and his influence on 
landscape painting ; Turner (1775-1851) ; portrait painting : Eawrence 
(1769-1830) ; genre painting : Wilkie (1785-1841). 

The German painters : the mysticism of the first romantic painters ; 
Overbeck (1789-1869) ; the idealists : Cornelius (1787-1867) ; patriotic 
idealism and mysticism : Kaulbach (1805-1874) ; importance of Munich 
as the art centre of Germany during this period. 

The Spanish painters : their one great master, Goya (1745-1828). 

Sculpture during this period : the leading sculptors : Canova 
(1757-1822) ; Flaxman (1755-1826) ; Thorwaldsen (1770-1844) ; Rauch 
(1777-1857); David d' Angers (1793-1856). 

Improvement in the arts of reproduction : line engraving : Raphael 
Morghen (1758-1833) ; etching ; invention of lithography (1796) : Sene- 
felder (1771-1834). 

Music developed more than painting or sculpture during this period : 
the veritable great masters in music exerted their influence, aided by 
great improvements in the means for rendering their compositions. 

Music studied with greatest success in Germany ; its chief centre, 
Vienna : the supreme greatness of Beethoven (1770-1827) ; Schubert 
(1797-1828). 

The school of classical correctness in music : Cherubini (1 760-1 842) ; 
Spohr (1784-1859). 

Development of the opera : the opera in Germany : Weber (1 786-1 826); 
the Italian opera : Rossini (1792-1868) ; Donizetti (1798-1848) ; Bellini 
(1802-1835) ; the opera in France : Herold (1791-1833) ; Meyerbeer 
(1794-1864) ; comic opera: Boieldieu (1775-1834) ; Auber (1782-1871). 



256 Science from 1789 to 184.8. 

Romanticism in music : Berlioz (1803-1869) ; Chopin (1810-1849). 

Growth of a higher idealism in music, especially in Germany : Men- 
delssohn ( 1 809-1 848) ; Schumann (1810-1856) ; attempt of Wagner 
(1810-1883) to widen the sphere and heighten the realism of music ; 
effect of his writings ; production of Tannhauser (1845). 

Application of science to material needs : introduction of steam trans- 
port ; railroads; Boulton (1728-1809); Watt (1736-18 19); Fulton (1765- 
1815); Stephenson (1781-1848). 

The application of chemistry : Chaptal (1756-1832) ; J. B. Dumas 
(1800-1884) ; Liebig (1803-1871). 

The application of electricity: the electric telegraph : Gauss (1777- 
1855) ; Morse (1791-1874); Wheatstone (1802-1875). 

The discovery of photography : Niepce (1765-1833); Daguerre (1789- 

1851). 

The development of the natural sciences : attempts at a general har- 
mony of natural phenomena : L,amarck (1 744-1 829); Alexander von 
Humboldt (1769-1859); Darwin (1809-1882). 

The great biologists : Cuvier (1769-1832); B. H. Weber (1795-1878); 
Miiller (1801-1858). 

The great physiologists : Bichat (1 771-1802), the first writer on 
physiology ; Broussais (1772-1838); Bell (1774-1842). 

The great zoologists: Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire (1772-1844); Agassiz 
(1807-1873). 

The great botanists : Jussieu (1747-1836); De Candolle (1778-1841); 
Brongniart (1801-1876). 

The great geologists : William Smith (1769-1839); Dufrenoy (1792- 
1857); L,yell (1797-1875); Fylie de Beaumont (1 798-1874). 

The great mathematicians : the French school : L,agrange (1736- 
1813); Monge (1746-1818); Laplace (1749-1827); L,egendre (1752-1833); 
Carnot (1753-1823); Fourier (1768-1830); Cauchy (1789-1857); de- 
velopment of mathematics in other European countries : Gauss (1777- 
1855) ; Green (1793-1841) ; Lobachevski (1793-1850) ; Abel (1802- 
1829) ; Sturm (1803-1855) ; Sir W. R. Hamilton (1805-1865) ; De 
Morgan (1 806-1 871). 

The great astronomers : Herschel (1 738-1 822) ; Piazzi (1 746-1 826) ; 
Bessel (1 784-1 846) ; Arago (1 786-1 853) ; Olbers (1 788-1 840) ; Hansen 
(1795-1874) ; Airy (1801-1892) ; Leverrier (1811-1877). 



The Eastern Question, 184.1-54.. 257 

The great physicists : interest taken in electricity : Rumford (1753- 
1814) ; Young (1773-1829) ; Biot (1774-1862) ; Ampere (1775-1S36); 
Oersted (1777-1857) ; Davy (1778-1829) ; Fresnel (1788-1827) : Ohm 
(1788-1854) ; Faraday (1791-1867); mathematical physics : Laine 
(1795- 1 870). 

The great chemists : Cabanis (1757-1808); Gay-L,ussac (1778-1850); 
Berzelius (1779-1848) ; Chevreul (1 786-1 889); Liebig (1803-187 1). 

The extension of scientific knowledge brought about a greater degree 
of specialization in the natural, mathematical and experimental sciences. 



LECTURE 80. 



THE EASTERN QUESTION: THE CRIMEAN WAR. 

The Eastern Question from the settlement of the crisis brought on by 
the war between the Turks and Mehemet Ali ( 1839- 1 841). 

Protest of England and France against the pressure placed upon the 
Turks by Russia and Austria to surrender Polish and Hungarian fugi- 
tives : an English fleet entered the Dardanelles (1849) ; influence at 
Constantinople of Sir Stratford Canning (b. 1788, d. 1880), created Vis- 
count Stratford de Redcliffe (1852), the English ambassador (1841-1858). 

Reasons for England's interest in the preservation of the independence 
of Turkey ; proposal of the Tsar Nicholas to divide the territories of 
the "Sick Man" with England. 

The attitude of the Tsar Nicholas towards the Turks : consistency of 
his policy since the Treaties of Adrianople (1829) and Unkiar Skelessi 
( x 833); evacuation of the Danubian principalities by the Russian troops 
(1851) after the reorganization, which followed the Convention of Balta- 
Liman ; accession of Daniel, as Prince of Montenegro (185 1). 

The Tsar Nicholas believed the time propitious for the final over- 
throw of the Turks ; Francis Joseph of Austria was bound to him by 
gratitude for assistance in 1849, and almost dependent on him ; Fred- 
erick William IV. of Prussia, his brother-in-law, was desirous of ob- 
taining his help to establish his control over Germany ; England could 



258 The Crimean War. 

not fight without allies and might be induced to share the spoil ; while 
Napoleon III. was distrusted by the European powers, and maintenance 
of his position in France was doubtful ; the conversations of Nicholas 
with the English ambassador at Saint Petersburg, Sir George Hamilton 
Seymour (Jan., 1853). 

The condition of Turke3 r ; reforms attempted by the Sultan Abdul 
Medjid under the direction of Rashid Pasha and the encouragement 
of Stratford Canning. 

Disputed questions likely to lead to war : the difficulty about Mon- 
tenegro ; the quarrel with France about the Holy Places in Palestine. 

Mission of Menshikov (b. 17S7, d. 1869) to Constantinople (28 Feb.- 
21 Ma>^ 1853); demand of Nicholas to be recognized as official protector 
of the Greek Christians in the Turkish dominions ; the Russian ulti- 
matum of 5 May, and its modified form of 21 May ; Nicholas' Note to 
the Powers (11 June); English and French fleets under Admirals James 
Dundas and Hamelin anchored in Besika Bay (14 June); a Russian 
arni} r under Michael Gorchakov crossed the Pruth (2 July) and occu- 
pied the Danubian principalities; Gregory Ghica, Hospodar of Moldavia, 
and Stirbeiu, Hospodar of Wallachia, withdrew to Vienna; the Vienna 
Note (28 July); the English and French fleets entered the Dardanelles 
(22 Oct). 

The Turks at war with Russia (23 Oct., 1853): destruction of the 
Turkish fleet at Sinope (30 Nov.); the English and French fleets en- 
tered the Black Sea (4 Jan., 1854). 

England and France signed a treat}'- of alliance with Turkey (12 Mar. 
1854^) and declared war against Russia (27 Mar.); alliance signed be- 
tween England and France (10 Apr.). 

The attitude and policy of Austria and Prussia : they demand, with 
France and England, the evacuation of the Danubian principalities ; 
offensive and defensive alliance signed between Prussia and Austria (20 
Apr., 1854). 

Gallant defence of Silistria by the Turks (19 May-23 June, 1854); 
English and French armies under Raglan and Saint- Arnaud landed at 
Varna (Maj^-June^); the Danubian principalities evacuated by the Rus- 
sians (2 Aug.); the allied armies landed in the Crimea '14-16 Sept.). 

Austria occupied the Danubian principalities and restored the au- 



The Crimean War. 259 

thority of the Hospodars (Aug. -Sept.), under an agreement signed with 
the Sultan (12 June); the difficulty felt by the Allies in effectively at- 
tacking Russia while Austria refused to declare war ; indignation of 
the Tsar Nicholas and of the Allies at the conduct of Austria ; Francis 
Joseph kept in check by the attitude of Prussia and the Germanic Con- 
federation ; the Four Points demanded by the Western Powers, and 
accepted by Austria (8 Aug.), but rejected by Russia: (1) abandonment 
of Russia's protectorate over the Danubian principalities and Servia ; 
(2) freedom of navigation of the Danube ; (3) revision of the Treaty of 
13 July, 1841, so far as it related to the neutrality of the Dardanelles ; 
(4) abandonment of Russia's claim to the protectorate over the Chris- 
tians in Turkey. 

The campaign in the Crimea: the Russians under Menshikov defeated 
in the battle of the Alma (20 Sept.); death of Saint- Arnaud, who was 
succeeded by Canrobert (29 Sept.); battles of Balaklava (25 Oct.), and 
Inkerman (5 Nov.); siege of Sevastopol ; defence of the city by Tod- 
leben (b. 1818, d. 1884); sufferings of the allied armies during the siege. 

The English and French fleets in the Baltic under Sir Charles Napier 
and Parseval-Deschenes : capture of Bomarsund (16 Aug.). 

Continued vacillation of Austria. 

Death of the Tsar Nicholas (2 Mar., 1855); accession of Alexander 
II. (b. 1818). 

Campaign of 1855 before Sevastopol : Menshikov succeeded by 
Michael Gorchakov in command of the Russian army (4 March); 
Canrobert succeeded by Pelissier in command of the French army (1.6. 
May); operations of the allied fleets, now commanded by Lyons and 
Bruat ; attack on the Redan and capture of the Mamelon (7 June) and 
failure to capture the Malakov (18 June); death of Raglan, who was 
succeeded by Simpson (28 June); Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, 
joined the Allies (26 Jan.), and sent an army under EaMarmora (b. 1804, 
d. 1878) to the Crimea (May); battle of the Chernaia (16 Aug.); cap- 
ture of the Malakov (8 Sept.); surrender of Sevastopol (9 Sept.); Cod- 
rington in command of the English army (n Nov.). 

Campaign of 1855 in the Baltic : the English and French fleets under 
Richard Dundas and Penaud bombard Sveaborg and Helsingfors (7-1 1 
Aug.). 



260 The Treaty of Paris, 1856. 

Campaign of 1855 in Armenia : gallant defence of Kars under Fen- 
wick Williams ; its surrender (28 Nov.). 

Negotiations of the Tsar Alexander II. for peace ; exhaustion of 
Russia. 

Congress of Paris for the settlement of terms of peace : meeting of 
the Congress (25 Feb., 1856) ; plenipotentiaries present were : for 
France, Walewski and Bourqueney ; for England, Clarendon and Cow- 
ley ; for Russia, Orlov and Bruunow ; for Austria, Buol and Hiibner ; 
for Sardinia, Cavour and Villamarina ; and for Turkey, Ali Pasha and 
Djemil Effendi; the Prussian representatives, Manteuffel and Hatzfeldt, 
were not admitted till 18 March. 

By the Treaty of Paris (30 March) the independence and territorial 
integrity of Turkey was recognized, the Black Sea neutralized, and the 
Danube declared a free river ; the Danubian principalities of Moldavia 
and Wallachia were given complete local self-government under their 
own princes, with national armies and representative institutions, 
guaranteed hy the powers, but under the suzerainty of Turkey ; Servia 
received the same advantages, but Turkish garrisons were maintained 
in Belgrade and in three other cities. 

By the Declaration of Paris (16 April) privateering was forbidden ; 
neutral goods, when carried in the ships of belligerents, and enemies' 
goods on neutral ships, except contraband of war, were protected, and 
blockades recognized only when effective. 

Before the Congress broke up Cavour (b. 1S09, d. 1861) brought for- 
ward the condition of Italy, and the proceedings of Ferdinand II., 
King of the Two Sicilies, against his subjects were condemned. 

Evacuation of the Crimea by the French and English armies (July, 
1S56). 

The most conspicuous results of the Congress of Paris were the 
isolation of Austria and the favorable attitude of the other Great 
Powers toward Sardinia. 

Authorities : The best small book in English is Hamley, The War in the 

Crimea ; see also Engelhardt, La Turquie et le tanzimat ; histoire des reformes 
depuis 1S26 ; Forgade, Histoire des causes de la guerre d'Orient ; Lane-Poole, Life 
of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe ; Vitzthum von Etkstiidt, St. Petersburg and London 
in the years 1S52-64 ; Thouvenei, Nicolas I. et Napoleon III. (1S52-54) ; Kifiglake, 



Italy from 184.8 to 1858. 261 

The Invasion of the Crimea, its Origin and Account of its Progress to the Death of 
Lord Raglan ; Hamley, The Story of the Campaign of Sebastopol ; Russell, The 
British Expedition to the Crimea ; Sandwith, Narrative of the Siege of Kars ; 
Rousset, Histoire de la guerre de Crimee ; Niel, Le siege de Sebastopol ; Bazan- 
court, ^'Expedition de Crimee ; la marine francaise dans la mer Noire et la Bal- 
tique, and L'Expedition de Crimee jusqu'a la prise de Sebastopol; Todleben, La de- 
fense de Sebastopol ; Brialmont, Le general Todleben, sa vie et ses travaux ; 
Rolhan, La Prusse et son Roi pendant la guerre de Crimee; Riistow, Der Krieg 
gegen Russland, and Der Angriff auf die Krimundder Kampf um Sebastopol, and 
Geffcken, Zur Geschichte dts Orieutalischen Krieges. 



LECTURE 81. 



THE UNION OF ITALY. 

Condition of Italy after the revolutionary movement of 1848 ; cruel 
government of Ferdinand II., King of the Two Sicilies ; reactionary 
government of Pope Pius IX., the Grand Duke I^opoid II. of Tuscany, 
Duke Francis V. of Modena, and Duke Charles III. of Parma ; assassi- 
nation of Charles III. of Parma (26 Mar., 1854), and accession of Rob- 
ert I. ; arbitrary military government of the Austrians in Lombardy and 
Venetia. 

The only constitutional, parliamentary and moderate government in 
Italy was that of the King of Sardinia ; character of Victor Emmanuel 
II. (b. 1820, d. 1878); ministry of D'Azeglio (7 May, 1849-22 Oct., 1852); 
Cavour, chief minister of Sardinia (4 Nov., 1852-13 July, 1859) ; his 
sagacious policy; Victor Emmanuel and Cavour hoped to accomplish the 
union of Italy under the constitutional government of the House of 
Savoy. 

Progress of the revolutionary movement in Italy: it was mainly re- 
publican and democratic, and looked to the formation of an Italian 
Republic ; opposite points of view of Cavour and Mazzini ; the former 
wished to accomplish the union of Italy by policy, with the countenance 
and assistance of Europe, the latter by means of popular insurrection ; 
Mazzini's attempt to raise an insurrection in Genoa (June, 1857). 



262 The Policy of Cavour. 

The Austrians continued to occupy Parma, Modena and the Lega- 
tions, while the French had occupied Rome since 1849. 

Political advantage obtained by Cavour in joining the Anglo-French 
alliance against Russia in 1855, and in sending an army to the Crimea ; 
he thus obtained the right to be present at the Congress of Paris, and 
to lay the grievances of Italy before the Great Powers. 

Interest taken in England and in France in the cause of Italian 
unity ; indignation at the cruelties of King Bomba ; conspiracies formed, 
and money obtained ; the work of the secret societies and spread of 
democratic and unitary principles. 

Napoleon III. considered the possibility of assisting the Italian cause; 
his sympathy with the spirit of nationality ; the idea of creating a con- 
federation of the Italian Princes under the leadership of the Pope and 
the King of Sardinia ; attempt of Orsini on the life of Napoleon III. 
(14 Jan., 1S58). 

The condition of affairs in Europe in 1S58 favored the policy of Na- 
poleon III. and Cavour ; in Prussia Prince William had been declared 
regent owing to the insanity of Frederick William IV. (7 Oct., 1858); 
the new regent hated Austria and was ready to be on friendly terms 
with France ; the Tsar Alexander II. also friendly with France. 

England, though less friendly with France than during the Crimean 
War, was too much occupied with the suppression of the Sepoy Mutiny 
in India to wish to interfere in the affairs of Europe, and English 
public opinion was all in favor of Italian unity and liberty; Austria, 
the power most opposed to Italian reform and unity, was therefore 
isolated. 

Success of the French policy in the two Danubian provinces: the idea 
of union ; revival of the idea of Romanian nationality ; union not for- 
bidden by the Treaty of Paris, though not intended by the Powers ; 
provisional government (1856- 1858) ; Alexander John Couza elected 
Prince of Moldavia (17 Jan.. 1859), and of Wallachia (5 Feb.) ; Milosch 
Obrenovitch replaced Alexander Karageorgevitch as Prince of Servia 
(12 Jan., 1859); on his death (26 Sept., i860) he was succeeded by his 
son, Michael. 

Napoleon III. and Cavour agreed at Plombieres (20 July, 1858) that 
Sardinia should cede Savoy and Nice to France in return for assistance 
against Austria in Italy. 



The War of 18 59. 263 

The relations between Sardinia and Austria : Austria declared war 
(26 Apr., 1859); Napoleon III. declared his intention of aiding Victor 
Emmanuel. 

The campaign of 1859 in Italy : the French and Sardinian armies de- 
feated the Austrians at Montebello (20 May) and at Magenta (4 June); 
entrance of Napoleon III. and Victor Emmanuel into Milan (8 June); 
Napoleon's appeal to the Italians to unite for the freedom of their 
country. 

General insurrection in Italy : the Grand Duke Leopold driven from 
Florence (27 Apr.), Duke Robert I. from Parma (9 June), and Duke 
Francis V. from Modena ( 1 1 June) ; Francis II. succeeded as King of 
the Two Sicilies (22 May), and was prevented from aiding the Austrians 
by insurrections ; the Austrians withdrew from the Legations (12-18 
June); provisional governments formed at Florence under Ricasoli (27 
Apr.), at Modena (13 June) and at Bologna (12 June). 

The French defeated the Austrians at Solferino (24 June) ; Napoleon 
III., startled at the spread of the revolutionary movement in Italy, and 
afraid of the establishment of a strongly unified monarchy, instead of 
an Italian federation, made an armistice with Austria (8 July). 

By the Treaty of Villafranca (11 July) Austria made peace with 
France and ceded Lombardy, but not Venetia, to Napoleon III. ; resig- 
nation of Cavour (13 July) ; both Austria and France afraid of the 
Prince Regent of Prussia, who had mobilized the Prussian army ( 14 
June); definitive treaty signed at Zurich (10 Nov.). 

Progress of the movement in Italy for amalgamation with the King- 
dom of Sardinia ; Tuscany, the Legations, the Romagna and the Duchies 
of Parma and Modena voted for union with Sardinia (Aug., Sept.) ; 
they elected the Prince of Carignano as regent (6-9 Nov.) ; he refused 
the office and named Boncompagni as regent (14 Nov.); Garibaldi 
resigned the command of their army (17 Nov.) ; Cavour recalled to 
office by Victor Emmanuel (16 Jan., i860). 

Napoleon III. appealed for a conference of the Great Powers to settle 
the affairs of Italy (30 Nov., 1859) ; England formally opposed ; Pal- 
merston, who had become prime minister (12 June, 1859), declared for 
non-intervention and that the central Italian states had a right to decide 
on their own government, and he demanded that the French should 
evacuate Rome (22 Jan., i860). 



264 The Union of Italy. 

Victor Emmanuel accepted the union, with the Kingdom of Sardinia, 
of Parma, Modena and the Romagna (18 Mar.), and of Tuscany (22 
March). 

Napoleon III. ceded L,ombardy to Victor Emmanuel in exchange for 
Savoy and Nice (24 March). 

Garibaldi landed in Sicily with a body of followers (11 May, i860) ; his 
movement entirely independent ; he disliked Cavour, and was an ad- 
herent of republicanism rather than of the House of Savoy; Garibaldi 
conquered all Sicily by the end of July ; Francis II., King of the Two 
Sicilies, re-issued the constitution which his father had granted in 1848 
and afterwards had withdrawn (2 July) ; Garibaldi crossed to the main- 
land (19 Aug.), conquered Calabria and occupied Naples (7 Sept.) ; 
Francis II. escaped to Gaeta (6 Sept.) ; Mazzini joined Garibaldi (17 
Sept.), and projected the establishment of an Italian Republic. 

Action of Victor Emmanuel and Cavour at this juncture : they rep- 
resented themselves as forced by circumstances to intervene in the af- 
fairs of southern Italy ; encouraged by England : wrath of the Pope, 
who excommunicated Victor Emmanuel ; Cialdini, with a Sardinian 
army, defeated the Papal troops at Castelfidardo (18 Sept.), occupied 
Umbria and the March, avoided the Patrimony of St. Peter, and entered 
Neapolitan territory (23 Sept.) ; capture of Ancona (29 Sept.). 

The Parliament of Turin, consisting of deputies from all northern 
and central Italy, authorized Victor Emmanuel to unite the March, 
Naples and Sicily with the Sardinian dominions (11-16 Oct.) ; Victor 
Emmanuel proceeded to Naples ; patriotic conduct of Garibaldi ; Um- 
bria, the March, Naples and Sicily voted for union with northern and 
central Italy (21 Oct.). 

Surrender of Gaeta (13 Feb., 1861). 

Meeting of the first Italian Parliament at Turin (18 Feb., 1861); the 
King of Sardinia declared King of Italy as Victor Emmanuel 1.(17 Mar.). 

Italy thus formed into a united kingdom within eighteen months 
from the outbreak of war with Austria, the only provinces not ruled 
by the House of Savoy being Venetia, occupied by the Austrians, and 
Rome, with the Patrimo^^ of St. Peter, garrisoned by French troops. 

Causes of this startling success : the ability of Cavour; organization 
of Italy as a limited monarchy under the House of Savoy. 

Death of Cavour (6 June, 1861). 



The Creation of Romania. 265 

Authorities : The best small book in English is Slillman, The Union of 
Italy; see also Martinengo Cesaresco, The Liberation of Italy; Tivaroni, Storia 
critica del Risorgiinento Italiano; Reuchlin, Geschichte Italiens ; Mistrali, Da No- 
vara a Roma ; Crozals, L'Unite italienne ; Giacometti, L'Unite italienne ; Cantu, 
Delia Indipendenza Italiana; Ideville, Journal d'un Diplomate en Italie, 1859-1862 ; 
Bianchi, Storia documentata della diplomazia Europea in Italia ; Rattazzi, Rat- 
tazzi et son temps ; Zeller, Pie IX. et Victor Emmanuel ; Bottalla, Histoire de la 
revolution de i860 en Sicile ; Garibaldi, Memoirs ; Mazzini, Scritti, editi ed in- 
editi; Massari, Vita di Vittorio Emanuele II., and Vita di Cavour ; Godkin, Life of 
Victor Emmanuel ; Mazade, Le comte de Cavour ; Nigra, Correspondence of Ca- 
vour with Madame de Circourt, translated by Butler ; Cavour, II conte di Cavour 
in parlamento; discorsi, ed. Artom and Blanc; Lettere edite ed inedite, ed. Chiala; 
and Nouvelles Lettres, ed. Bert; Bianchi, La politique du Comte Camille de Ca- 
vour de 1852 a. 1861, lettres inedites ; Mario, Garibaldi e i suoi Tempi ; D y Aze- 
glio, I miei ricordi ; LTtalie de 1847 a 1S65 ; Correspondance,ed. Rendu ; Scritti 
politici e letterari, ed. Tabarrini; and Scritti postumi, ed. Ricci; Della Rocca, Au- 
tobiography of a Veteran ; Duquet, Histoire de la guerre d'ltalie ; Rilstow, Der 
italienische Krieg, 1859, aQ d Erinnerungen aus dem italienischen Feldzuge von 
i860, and Bazancourt, La campagne dTtalie de 1859. 



LECTURE 82. 



THE OVERTHROW OP AUSTRIA. 

Position of the Great Powers toward each other after the formation 
of the Kingdom of Italy. 

The restless policy of Napoleon III. : continuance of the alliance with 
England, but on less cordial terms ; the joint expedition to China ( i860); 
French interference in Syria (i860) ; the French expedition to Mexico 
(1862); election of the Archduke Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico 
(10 July, 1863); disastrous result of French interference in Mexico (1866); 
Maximilian shot (19 June. 1867). 

Development of the Eastern Question : friendship between Napoleon 
III. and Alexander II. ; union of the provinces of Moldavia and Walla- 
chia into the Principality of Romania (23 Dec, 1861); death of Sultan 
Abdul Medjid and accession of Abdul Aziz (25 June, 1861); overthrow 
of Prince Alexander Couza (23 Feb., 1866); election of Prince Charles 
of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen as Prince of Romania (20 Apr., 1866). 



266 The Policy of Bismarck. 

Revolution in Greece : overthrow of King Otho (Oct., 1862); election 
of Prince George of Denmark as King of the Hellenes (30 Mar., 1863); 
representative institutions established; cession by England of the 
Ionian Islands to Greece (28 May, 1864). 

The position in Italy: the ministries of Ricasoli (12 June, 1861 — 2 
March, 1862); Rattazzi (3 March, 1862 — 1 Dec, 1862), and Farini (9 Dec, 
1862 — 23 Sept., 1864); longing of the Italians for Rome and Venice ; 
negotiations with France for the withdrawal of the French garrison from 
Rome ; Garibaldi's attempt on Rome defeated at Aspromonte (29 Aug., 
1862); ministry of La Marmora (23 Sept., 1864 — 20 June, 1866); his 
negotiations with Prussia. 

The policy of Tsar Alexander II.: emancipation of the Russian 
serfs (18 Mar., 1861); outbreak of insurrection in Russian Poland 
(22 Jan., 1863); offer of Prussia to assist Russia in suppressing the in- 
surrection (8 Feb.); gratitude of Alexander ; joint representations of 
England, Austria and France in favor of the Poles (17 Apr.); indigna- 
tion of the Tsar. 

The internal policy of Austria : Rechberg, minister of foreign affairs 
(17 May, 1859 — 27 Oct., 1864); the Emperor Francis Joseph promulgated 
a unitary constitution (20 Oct., i860); refusal of the Hungarians and 
Venetians to send deputies to the new parliament. 

Growing strength of Prussia: accession of William I. (2 Jan., 1861); 
his character and previous career ; his military instincts ; reorganiza- 
tion of the Prussian army by Von Roon (b. 1803, d. 1879), and of the 
general staff by Von Moltke (b. 1800, d. 1891); King William's belief 
in the unity of Germany and in the mission of Prussia to dominate 
Germany. 

Position of parties in the Prussian Eandtag : Bismarck appointed 
chief minister (23 Sept., 1862); he was unable to obtain a parliamentary 
majority, but raised taxes and governed without it ; character of Bis- 
marck's polic}^ ; he worked for the isolation of Austria and the destruc- 
tion of her influence in Germany as the first step towards German 
unity. 

The weakness of the Bundestag, or Federal Diet ; the schemes of the 
middle states, headed by Saxony, Hanover and Bavaria, for preventing 
the predominance of either Austria or Prussia. 



The Schleswig-Holstein Question. 267 

The Schleswig-Holstein question : its position at the death of Fred- 
erick Vil. of Denmark (15 Nov., 1863); the Duke of Augustenburg put 
forward his claim to the duchies ; at the request of the Bundestag, 
Hanover and Saxony occupied Holstein and I^auenburg (23 Dec, 1863), 
and Prussia and Austria occupied Schleswig (1 Feb., 1864); resistance 
of the Danes ; battles of Duppel ; England's futile protests ; Christian 
IX. of Denmark forced to yield ; by the treaty of 1 August, confirmed 
30 October, 1864, he surrendered the duchies to Prussia and Austria. 

The Bundestag, led by Bavaria and Saxony, demanded that the 
duchies should be given up to the Duke of Augustenburg ; Bismarck 
scornfully refused; by the Convention of Gastein (14 Aug, 1865) 
Prussia and Austria agreed to a " condominium" in the duchies; Aus- 
tria occupied Holstein, while Prussia occupied Schleswig and pur- 
chased Iyauenburg. 

Bismarck's preparations for war with Austria ; the friendliness of 
Russia towards the Prussian schemes ; Bismarck's negotiations with Na- 
poleon III., to whom he offered Belgium and Luxemburg in return for 
neutrality. 

Bismarck signed an offensive and defensive treaty with Italy (8 Apr., 
1866), and promised to attack Austria within three months. 

Bismarck proposed to the Bundestag that a German parliament be 
elected by universal suffrage, that Austria be excluded from Germany, 
and that the forces of Germany be divided into two armies, of which the 
northern should be commanded by the King of Prussia and the south- 
ern by the King of Bavaria (9 Apr.). 

Bismarck attacked Austria's administration of Holstein as favoring 
the pretensions of the Duke of Augustenburg, and finally refused to 
submit the question of the duchies to the Bundestag (4 May). 

Outbreak of the Seven Weeks' War : a Prussian army under Man- 
teuffel (b. 1809, d. 1885) entered Holstein (7 June); diplomatic relations 
between Prussia and Austria broken off (12 June). 

Bismarck declared the Pact of Federation broken (14 June); Prussian 
troops occupied Saxony, Hanover, and Hesse- Cassel ; fruitless success 
of the Hanoverians at L,angensalza (27 June); Manteuffel invaded 
Bavaria and prevented the South German states from lending effective 
aid to Austria. 



268 The Seven Weeks' War, 1866. 

The campaign of 1866 in Italy : Italy declared war against Austria 
(20 June); the Italian army invaded Venetia and was defeated by the 
Archduke Albert at Custozza (24 June); the Italian fleet defeated by 
Tegetthoff at Ljssa (20 July) ; an armistice signed between Austria 
and Italy (12 Aug.), and by a treaty (24 Aug.) Austria ceded Venetia 
to Napoleon III. for transference, after a plebiscite, to the Kingdom of 
Italy. 

The campaign of 1866 in Bohemia: Von Moltke's strategical combi- 
nations ; junction of the armies of the Crown Prince Frederick of 
Prussia (b. 1831, d. 1888) and Prince Frederick Charles (b. 1828, d. 
1885); the Austrians under Benedek utterly defeated at Sadowa, or 
Koniggratz (3 July); armistice signed (22 July), followed by the Prelim- 
inaries of Nikolsburg (26 July), and the Treaty of Prague (23 Aug.). 

By this treaty Austria lost no territory, but agreed to the dissolution 
of the Germanic Confederation, and promised to make no opposition 
to a new organization of Germany, in which she should have no part. 

Prussia's chief advantages from the war were not gained from Aus- 
tria, but by the annexation of the following states : Hesse-Homburg 
(3 Sept.), Hanover, Hesse- Cassel, Nassau, the free city of Frankfort (20 
Sept.), and Schleswig-Holstein (24 Dec), which gave her an uncon- 
tested superiority in Germany ; favorable treaties of peace made with 
Wiirtemberg (13 Aug.), Baden (17 Aug.), Bavaria (22 Aug.), Hesse- 
Darmstadt ^3 Sept.), and Saxony (21 Oct.). 

When the great blew had been struck and it was too late for him to 
interfere effectively, Napoleon III., by his ambassador, Benedetti, asked 
for Rhenish Bavaria and Rhenish Hesse, as his reward for non-inter- 
ference (6 Aug.); William I. and Bismarck refused (7 Aug.), and by 
making known the request aroused German feeling against France. 

Results of the Seven Weeks' War on the position of European politics. 

Authorities : Debidour, Histoire diplomatique de l'Europe, 1814-78 ; Lefevre, 
Histoire de l'interventioo franchise au Mexique ; Masseras, TJn essai d'empire au 
Mexique ; Gaulot, I/Empire de Maximilien ; Monicault, La question d'Orieut, 
le traite* de Paris et ses suites (1856-71); Bergner, Rumanien ; Petrescu and 
Stourdza, Actes et documents relatifs a l'histoire de la regeneration de la Rou- 
manie ; Mendelssohn-Bartholdy , Geschichte Griechenlands ; Hertzberg, Ge- 
schichte Griechenlands; Thouvenel, Trois annees de la question d' Orient (1856-59), 
LaGrece duroiOthon, and L,e Secret del'Empereur( 1860-63); Zeller, Pie IX. etVic- 



The Overthrow of Austria. 269 

tor Emmanuel; Ricasoli, Letteree documenti; Bersezio, II regno di Vittorio Eman- 
uele; Garibaldi, Memoirs; Martin, Pologne etMuscovie; Batsch, La question polon- 
aise dans la Russie occidentale; Araminski, Histoire de la revolution polonaise ; Lis- 
icki, Le marquis Wielopolski ; Leroy-Beaulieu, Un homme d'etat russe, Nicolas 
Milutine; Sybel, Die Begrundung des deutschen Reiches durch Willielm I. ; William 
I., Militarische Schriften; Rocn, Denkwurdigkeitenj^A?/^!?, Gesammelte Sckriften 
und Denkwiirdigkeiten, and his Militarische Werke ; Midler, Graf Moltke ; Halm, 
Fiirst Bismarck ; Kohl, Fiirst Bismarck ; Busch, Our Chancellor ; Lowe, Life of 
Bismarck ; Simon, Histoire du prince de Bismarck ; Poschinger, Fiirst Bismarck 
und der Bundesrath ; Bismarck, Gesammelte Werke, Briefe, Politische Briefe, and 
Politischen Reden, and Gedenkschriften und Erinnerungen, translated by Butler; 
Beust, Memoirs ; Vitzthum vo?i Eckstadt, St. Petersburg and London, 1S52-64, 
and London, Gastein und Sadowa, 1S64-66; Giehne, Zwei Jahre CEsterreichischer 
Politik ; Malet, The Overthrow of the Germanic Confederation by Prussia in 1866; 
Loftus, Diplomatic Reminiscences ; Hansen, A travers la diplomatic, 1S64-67 ; 
Renouf, Les coulisses de la diplomatic; Rothan, La politique francaise en 1866; 
Benedetti, Ma mission en Prusse, and Essais diplomatiques ; Klaczko, Les prelimi- 
naires de Sadowa, and Two Chancellors, Bismarck and Gortchakoff ; Viel-Castel, 
Memoirs; Castellane, Journal ; Gramont (pseud. Mentor), L'Allemagne nouvelle ; 
La Marmora, Un peu plus de lumiere sur les eve'nements militaires et politiques 
de l'annee 1S66 ; Chiala, Dal congresso di Plombieres al congresso di Berlino, and 
Le general La Marmora et l'alliance prussienne; Bonghi, L'allianza prussiana e 
l'acquisto del Veneto ; Harcourt, Les quatre ministeres de M. Drouyn de Lhuys ; 
Hahn, Zwei Jahre preussich-deutscher Politik, 1866-67 i Treitschke, Zehn Jahre 
deutscher Kampfe, 1865-74 ; Dicey, The Schleswig-Holstein War; Ri'istow, Der 
deutsch-danische Krieg, 1864; Hozier, The Seven Weeks' War; Lecomte, Guerre 
de la Prusse et de lTtalie contre l'Autriche et la Confederation germanique ; Borb- 
stddt, Preussens Feldziige gegen GSsterreich ; Ri'istow, Der Krieg von 1866 im 
Deutschland und Italien ; Fontane, Der deutsche Krieg von 1866 ; Knorr, Der 
Feldzug des Jahr 1866 in West- und Sud-Deutschland, and the official accounts of 
the wars of 1864 and 1866 by the German, Danish and Austrian general staffs. 



LECTURE 83. 



THE RE-CONSTITUTION OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA. 

After the signature of the Treaty of Prague, Prussia propounded a 
new organization for northern Germany ; the victories of her armies 
and the great preponderance she had obtained over the other states by 



270 The North German Confederation, 

the annexation of Hanover, etc., caused Bismarck's plan to be promptly 
accepted by the northern states (7 Feb., 1867). 

Germany north of the Main was formed into the North German 
Confederation, which consisted of the two kingdoms of Prussia and 
Saxony, the four grand duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklen- 
burg-Strelitz, Saxe- Weimar, and Oldenburg, five duchies, seven princi- 
palities, and the three free cities of Hamburg, Bremen, and I^iibeck. 

The federal power extending over foreign affairs, the army, coinage, 
and all matters not strictly provincial, was entrusted to the King of 
Prussia as President of the Confederation, whose executive minister was 
the Chancellor, appointed by himself; the King of Prussia was also 
commander-in-chief of the army and navy ; Bismarck appointed chan- 
cellor (14 July). 

The federal legislative authority was to be administered by the Fed- 
eral Parliament, or Reichstag, elected b} 7 universal suffrage in proportion 
to population. 

Between the President and the Reichstag was established the Federal 
Council, or Bundesrath, consisting of forty-three members appointed by 
the governments of the different states, Prussia nominating seventeen. 

The constitution was accepted by the Constituent Reichstag (16 
Apr., 1867), which voted taxes for the maintenance of the army for 
four years. 

Von Roon applied the military organization of Prussia to the whole 
of the North German Confederation. 

The South German states, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden and Hesse- 
Darmstadt, maintained their independence, but the Zollverein, or Cus- 
toms-Union, was renewed between them and the North German Con- 
federation (8 July), its affairs being regulated by a " Zollparlament." 

The condition of the Austrian Empire after the Treaty of Prague : 
failure of the unitary constitution granted in i860, owing to the absten- 
tion of Hungarian deputies ; the struggle between the federalists and 
the dualists ; the Emperor Francis Joseph resolved on a dual constitu- 
tion ; Beust (b. 1809. d. 1886) appointed Austrian Chancellor (23 June, 
1867). 

The dual agreement of 8 February, 1867 : the Empire split into two 
parts, Austria and Hungary, each having separate parliaments, minis- 



The Dual Constitution of Austro- Hungary. 271 

tries, budgets and complete internal autonomy ; foreign policy, imperial 
finance and military administration carried on by ministers responsible 
to a Reichstag, consisting of delegations from the Austrian and Hunga- 
rian parliaments; these arrangements embodied in a Constitution, which 
received the sanction of Francis Joseph (22 Dec, 1867). 

Delight of the Magyars at the Dual Constitution, which was mainly 
the work of Deak; their attitude towards subject populations, and com- 
promise with Croatia. 

Wrath of the Slavonic populations at the Dual Constitution ; the 
Slavs of the north, headed by the Czechs, being thus separated from 
the Slovaks, Slavonians, Croats and Servians in the south. 

The condition of Russia ; liberal policy of the Tsar Alexander II. 
and his ministers, except with regard to Poland. 

Russia's advance in Central Asia: wars in Turkestan; the conquered 
territories formed into the Governor- Generalship of Turkestan (23 
July, 1867) ; Bokhara became a tributary state (1868). 

Condition of the Eastern Question : growth of Romanian claims for 
independence under Prince Charles of Hohenzollern ; the Turks with- 
drew their garrisons from Belgrade and the other Servian fortresses (18 
Apr., 1867); assassination of Michael Obrenovitch (10 June, 1868), 
and accession of Milan, as Prince of Servia ; insurrections in the Her- 
zegovina (1861-62) and in Crete (1866-69). 

Italian affairs after the Treaty of Prague : the Italians demanded the 
evacuation of Rome by the French garrison ; the garrison withdrawn 
(11 Dec, 1866) ; Garibaldi's attack on Rome (25 Oct., 1867) ; a French 
army under De Failly arrived in Rome to defend the Pope (30 Oct.) ; 
defeat of Garibaldi at Mentana (3 Nov.) ; withdrawal of the French 
troops to Civita Vecchia. 

Negotiations of Napoleon III. with Bismarck : his schemes on Bel- 
gium; his schemes on Luxemburg, which had been ruled by the King 
of the Netherlands as a German state, but had not joined the North 
German Confederation; equivocal position of Luxemburg, which was 
garrisoned by Prussia ; William III. of the Netherlands ready to sell 
Luxemburg to France, but unwilling to do so without the consent of 
Prussia. 

Napoleon III. appealed to Europe on the question of Luxemburg ; a 



272 The Policy of Napoleon III. 

conference of the Great Powers, by the Treaty of Iyondon (11 May, 1867), 
directed that the grand duchy be evacuated by Prussia, that the fortress 
be dismantled, and that its neutrality be guaranteed by Europe. 

Growing weakness and unpopularity of the Second Empire in France ; 
effect of the final failure of the Mexican expedition (1867); strength of 
the parliamentary opposition under Thiers ; resolution of Napoleon III. 
to rule more in harmony with popular feeling ; he granted a measure 
of liberty to the press (10 May, 1868), and the right of public meeting 
(6 June, 1868), and eventually established real parliamentary govern- 
ment (8 Sept., 1869). 

Napoleon's concessions taken as a confession of weakness ; general 
hatred and contempt expressed for the Empire in France : the repub- 
lican party grew in strength and threatened revolution ; prominence of 
Gambetta (b. 1838, d. 1882), elected deputy for Paris in 1869; vigor 
of republican journalism; Henri Rochefort (b. 1830), editor of La 
Lanterne; influence of the "International," founded 28 Sept., 1864, a 
democratic society of workingmen, directed by Mazzini, Kossuth, 
Ledru-Rollin, Karl Marx and George Odger. 

Napoleon regarded a successful war as the only means practicable for 
restoring the authority of the Empire ; he was falsely told that the 
army was efficient ; he resolved on war with Prussia, because Bismarck 
had foiled his designs on Luxemburg and he could promise the French 
people a restoration of the " natural limits " of France ; his endeavors 
to obtain allies ; Austria afraid to join him from fear of Russia, and 
Italy declined, because of the French occupation of Civita Vecchia. 

William I. and Bismarck also desired war with France ; they wished 
to incorporate the South German states and to complete German unity 
by a great national triumph. 

Napoleon III. formed liberal ministry under F^mile Ollivier (3 Jan., 
1870); he appealed to a plebiscite and by 7,336,434 votes to 1,560,709 
France declared herself satisfied with the Empire (8 May, 1870), 

The pretext for war derived from the situation in Spain. 

Recent history of Spain : unpopularity of Queen Isabella II. ; domi- 
nation of the army and frequency of military pronunciamentos. 

Repeated changes of ministry and alternation of power between Es- 
partero, Narvaez and O'Donnell; war with Morocco (1859-60), with 



War Declared by Fra?ice against Prussia, i8jo. 273 

Peru (1864-66), with San Domingo (1864-65); chronic state of insur- 
rection in Cuba. 

After the death of Narvaez and O'Donnell, Isabella was abandoned ; 
insurrection of September, 1868 ; flight of Isabella to France (30 Sept.); 
formation of a provisional government (8 Oct.) under Serrano (b. 1810, 
d. 1885), Prim (b. 1814, d. 1870), and Topete (b. 1820, d. 1885). 

Meeting of a constituent assembly at Madrid (11 Feb. 1869); it elected 
Serrano regent and declared in favor of limited monarchy ; candidates 
for the throne of Spain, Don Carlos, the Due de Montpensier, and Prince 
Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ; Prim suggested the candidature of 
a prince of the House of Hohenzollern; King William I. of Prussia gave 
permission for the candidature of his relative, Prince Leopold of Hohen- 
zollern-Sigmaringen (28 June). 

Napoleon III. resolved to make out of this candidature a casus belli 
with Prussia ; Benedetti sent to Ems to demand an explanation of King 
William; his interviews with the King (9-1 1 July); candidature of 
Prince Leopold for the throne of Spain withdrawn (12 July); Benedetti's 
instructions to demand yet more from the King of Prussia ; the King 
left Ems (15 July); Bismarck ready for war ; mobilization of the Ger- 
man armies. 

Excitement in Germany at the behavior of France ; the South Ger- 
man states prepared to assist the North German Confederation ; enthu- 
siasm felt at the prospect of war with France. 

England endeavored to mediate, but Napoleon and Bismarck were 
bent upon war; France declared war (19 July); European public opinion 
regarded the war as wanton and sympathized with Prussia. 

Authorities : Von Sybel, Die Begriindung des deutschen Reiches durch Wil- 
heltn I.; Maurenbrecher, Griindung des deutschen Reiches ; Oncken, Das Zeitalter 
des Kaisers Wilhelm ; Wilhehn I., Politische Correspondenz ; Treitschke, Zehn 
Jahre deutscher Katnpfe, and Deutsche Geschichte im I9 tea Jahrhundert ; Binding, 
Die Grundung des Norddeutschen Bundes; Bulle, Geschichte des zweiten Kaiser- 
reiches und des Konigreiches Italien ; Viron, Histoire de l'Allemagne depuis la 
bataille de Sadowa ; Ernest, Dtike of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Memoirs ; Rogge, CEs- 
terreich (1848-73) ; Stillman, The Cretan Insurrection of 1866; Delord, Histoire 
du Second Empire ; Rothan, La politique francaise en 1866, L'Affaire de Luxem- 
bourg, and La France et sa politique exterieure en 1867 ; Thiers, Discours parle- 
mentaires ; Gramont (pseud. Memor), La France et la Prusse avant la guerre ; 



274 The Franco-German War, 1870-71. 

Ollivier, Memoires, and Le 19 Janvier ; papiers et correspondance de la famille im- 
perial ; Rochefort, Memoires ; Gambetta, Discours et plaidoyers choisis, ed. 
Reinach; Beust, Memoirs ; Benedetti, Ma Mission en Prusse, and Essais diplo- 
matiques ; Hahn, Der Krieg Deutschlands gegen Frankreich und die Grundung des 
deutschen Kaiserreichs ; Sorel, Histoire diplomatique de la guerre franco- alle- 
mande ; Poujade, La diplomatic du Second Empire et celle du quatre Septembre, 
1870 ; Strobel, The Spanish Revolution, 186S-1875 ; Hubbard, Histoire contempo- 
raine d'Espagne ; Mazade, L,es revolutions de l'Espagne contemporaine ; Cherbu- 
liez, L'Espagne politique (1868-73); Lauser, Geschichte Spaniens von dem Sturz 
Isabellas ; Pirala, Historia contemporanea (1843-75) ; Laveleye, T,a Prusse et l'Au- 
triche depuis Sadowa ; Loftiis, Diplomatic Reminiscences, and many of the books 
cited under Lecture 80, including those on Bismarck. 



LECTURE 84. 



THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR. 

Attitude of the Powers of Europe at the outbreak of the Franco- 
German War; England declared neutrality (19 July, 1870), and Eng- 
lish public opinion was aroused against France by the publication of 
Napoleon III.'s propositions to Bismarck for seizing Belgium ; Russia 
declared neutrality (23 July) and threatened to attack Austria, if that 
power should join France ; Austria, therefore, remained neutral ; Italy 
refused to join France because of the French occupation of Civita 
Vecchia ; Denmark alone prepared to aid Napoleon, if the French armies 
won some immediate success ; formation of the League of Neutrals 
(Aug. -Sept.). 

Enthusiasm for the war in Germany ; the Crown Prince of Prussia 
took command of the contingents of the South German states. 

Excitement in Paris ; the Emperor Napoleon III. left Paris to take 
command of the army (28 July). 

Rapid mobilization of the German army ; Moltke's plan of campaign ; 
inferiority of the French military administration ; change in the French 
plan of campaign owing to the adhesion of the South German states to 
Prussia. 

First campaign of 1870 : the skirmish at Saarbriick (2 Aug.); battle 



The Franco- German War, 1870-71. 275 

of Wissembourg (4 Aug.); the Crown Prince of Prussia utterly defeated 
MacMahon (b. 1808, d. 1893), at Worth, or Froschwiller, and Prince 
Frederick Charles defeated Frossard at Spicheren, or Forbach (6 Aug.); 
Moltke, having thus broken the French line, formed the siege of Stras- 
burg and advanced against the main French army under Bazaine ; 
Bazaine defeated at Borny (14 Aug.), at Mars-la-Tour, or Vionville (16 
Aug.), and at Gravelotte, or Saint-Privat (18 Aug.); Bazaine's army 
shut up in Metz and besieged by Prince Frederick Charles. 

Excitement caused in Paris by the news of the French defeats ; the 
Empress Eugenie, who had been appointed regent, dismissed Ollivier 
and appointed a new ministry under Montauban, Comte de Palikao 
(10 Aug.). 

The campaign of Sedan : the Army of Chalons under MacMahon, 
and accompanied by the Emperor, marched to relieve Metz ; it was 
utterly defeated by the main German army at Sedan (1 Sept.); surren- 
der of the French army (2 Sept.), and the Emperor Napoleon III. sent 
a prisoner into Germany. 

Revolution of 4 September in Paris : the Imperial Government over- 
thrown ; the deputies for Paris in the Legislative Body, with the excep- 
tion of Thiers, declared themselves the Government of National Defence, 
with General Trochu, commandant of Paris, as President ; this provis- 
ional government formed a ministry consisting of Jules Favre (b. 1809, 
d. 1880), Minister of Foreign Affairs ; Gambetta, Minister of the In- 
terior ; General L,e Flo, Admiral Fourichon, Cremieux, Ernest Picard, 
Jules Simon, Dorian and Magnin ; the other members of the Govern- 
ment of National Defence were Emmanuel Arago, Jules Ferry (b. 1832, 
d. 1893), Garnier-Pages, Eugene Pelletan, Glas-Bizoin and Henri 
Rochefort; Etienne Arago made Mayor of Paris. 

The first measures of the new French government : its mistakes ; it 
did not immediately summon a constituent assembly ; it persisted in 
remaining in Paris ; it sent Thiers to endeavor to obtain allies. 

Thiers' journey : his reception in England, Russia, Austria and Italy ; 
the French garrison had been withdrawn from Civita Vecchia (3 Aug.): 
Rome was captured by the Italians (20 Sept.), and declared the capital 
of the Kingdom of Italy. 

Continued success of the German armies in France ; the sies:e of Paris 



276 The Franco-German War, 1870-71. 

formed (19 Sept.); surrender of Toul (23 Sept.), and of Strasburg (23 
Sept.); the Germans advanced south and took Orleafns (11 Oct.); Bis- 
marck's negotiations with Bazaine ; his attitude towards the Govern- 
ment of National Defence; surrender of Bazaine and of Metz (27 Oct.). 

Gambetta left Paris (8 Oct.), and organized a branch government at 
Tours ; his extraordinary energy and success in calling France to arms; 
he advocated war a oittrance, and organized the Army of the Loire ; the 
Germans forced to evacuate Orleans, and defeated at Coulmiers (9 Nov.); 
advance of the Army of the Loire to the relief of Paris ; critical position 
of the German besieging army ; sortie of Trochu from Paris and battle 
of Villiers-Champigny (30 Nov.-2 Dec). 

Prince Frederick Charles broke the Army of the Loire in two, and 
reoccupied Orleans (5 Dec); the branch government retired from Tours 
to Bordeaux (10 Dec); surrender of Verdun (8 Nov.), of Thionville (24 
Nov.) and of Montmedy (14 Dec); brilliant defence of Belfort (2 Nov.- 
18 Feb.). 

Effect of German victories upon German popular opinion ; the South 
German states entered the North German Confederation (15-25 Nov.); 
the Reichstag offered the King of Prussia the title of Emperor (10 Dec); 
he declined to accept it until it was offered to him by the German Prin- 
ces ; this was done and William I. of Prussia was proclaimed German 
Emperor at Versailles (18 Jan., 187 1). 

Russia took advantage of the war and of the existence of Gladstone's 
ministry in England to declare the abrogation of the terms of the Treaty 
of Paris of 1856 (31 Oct., 1870); conference of the powers upon this sub- 
ject at London (17 Jan.); the Treaty of Paris modified so as to permit 
Russia to maintain a fleet in the Black Sea (13 Mar.); causes of France 
not being represented at the conference ; the policy of Bismarck with 
regard to the Government of National Defence. 

Final campaign ot 1871 ; the Germans commenced the bombardment 
of Paris (5 Jan.); operations of the Army of the North under Faid- 
herbe ; battle of Pont-Noyelles (23 Dec, 1870); Faidherbe's success at 
Bapaume (3 Jan., 187 1); surrender of Mezieres (2 Jan.) and of Pe- 
ronne (9 Jan.); Faidherbe utterly defeated by Von Gbben at Saint- 
Quentin (19 Jan.); operations of the Second Army of the Loire under 
Chanzy (b. 1823, d. 1883); he was defeated by Prince Frederick Charles 



The Commune of Paris, i8yi. 277 

at Le Mans (11 Jan.); operations of the Army of the East under Bour- 
baki; he was defeated at Hericourt (17 Jan.), and driven into Switzer- 
land ; last sortie from Paris under Ducrot ; battle of Buzenval (19 
Jan.); Paris forced to surrender (28 Jan.). 

The armistice of 28 Jan., 1871 ; its terms ; its blunders ; conduct of 
Jules Favre ; mistakes of the Government of National Defence ; resig- 
nation by Gambetta of his authority in the provinces (6 Feb.); elections 
held for a Constituent Assembly (8 Feb.). 

Meeting of the Constituent Assembly at Bordeaux (12 Feb.); Thiers 
elected "chief of the executive power "; signature of preliminaries of 
peace with Germany (26 Feb.); the treaty accepted by the Assembly 
(1 Mar.); by it France ceded Alsace and part of Lorraine, including 
Metz, to German}', and promised to pay a war indemnity of five mil- 
liards of francs; definitive treaty signed at Frankfort (10 May, 1S71). 

The Constituent Assembly declared the overthrow of the Empire; the 
proclamation of the Third French Republic (1 March, 1871)= 

Formation at Paris of the Government of the Commune (18 March, 
187 1); its leaders and their doctrines ; Thiers concentrated an army 
at Versailles against the Commune ; resistance of the government of 
the Commune ; the Archbishop of Paris and other hostages shot; the 
war with the Commune ; MacMahon conquered the Commune and 
occupied Paris (21-28 May); burning of the Tuileries and of the 
Hotel de Ville. 

The most important results of the Franco- German War were the 
completion of the unity of Germany and the overthrow of the Second 
Empire in France ; but the cession of Alsace and Lorraine, more than 
the result of the war, raised inextinguishable hatred between the two 
nations. 

Authorities : Sorel, Histoire diplomatique de la guerre Franco-Allemande ; 
Angeberg, Recueil des traites, conventions, etc., concernant la guerre Franco-Al- 
lemande ; Hahn, Der Krieg Deutschlands gegen Frankreich und die Griindung 
des deutschen Kaiserreichs ; Meding, De Sadowa a. Sedan ; Washbiime, Corre- 
spondence relating to the Franco-German War, and Recollections of a Minister to 
France (1S69-77) ; Daily News, War Correspondence; Forbes, My Experience of 
the Franco-German War; Russell, My Diary during the last great War ; Riistow, 
The War for the Rhine Frontier in 1S70; Borbstddt, The Franco-German War; 
Hooper, The Campaign of Sedan ; Labouchere, Diary of the Besieged Resident in 



278 The German Empire. 

Paris; Bingham, Journal of the Siege of Paris; Duquet, La Guerre 1870-71; Chu- 
quet, Le general Chanzy (1S23-1883), and La Guerre 1870-71; Bazaine, L'Arrnee 
du Rhin, and Episodes de la guerre de 1870 et le blocus de Metz; Jarras, Souvenirs ; 
Mazade, La guerre de France, and Monsieur Thiers ; Trochu, L' Empire et la de- 
fense de Paris, and CEuvres posthumes ; Chanzy, Memoires ; Villejranche, His- 
toire du general Chanzy ; Ducrot, La defense de Paris ; Lehautcourt, Le siege de 
Paris ; D' Hey Hi, Journal du siege de Paris; Rothan, L'Allemagne et lTtalie, 1870- 
71 ; Hippeau, Histoire diplomatique de la troisieme republique francaise; Andlau, 
Metz; D" Abrantes, Essai sur laregence de 1870 ; Palikao, Un ministere de la guerre 
de vingt-quatre jours ; Jules Favre, Le gouvernement de la Defense nationale ; 
Claretie, Histoire de la revolution de 1870-71; Jules Simon, Memoires, Souvenirs du 
4 Septembre, and Le gouvernement de M. Thiers ; Clas-Bizoin, Dictature de cinq 
mois ; Valfrey, Histoire de la diplomatic du gouvernement de la Defense nationale ; 
Maquest, La France et l'Europe pendant le siege de Paris ; Duret, Histoire de 
quatre ans ; Busch, Our Chancellor, and Bismarck in the Franco-German War ; 
Moltke, Geschichte des deutsch-franzosischen Krieges von 1870-71, and Militar- 
ische Correspondenz; Hanneken, Bazaine un die Kapitulation von Metz ; Blume, 
Operations of the German armies in France; Sybel, Der Frieden von 1871 ; March, 
History of the Paris Commune of 1871 ; Du Camp, Les convulsions de Paris ; Ar- 
nould, Histoire de la Commune; and Lissagaray, Histoire de la Commune, trans- 
lated by Ave ling. 

A full bibliography is contained in Palat, Bibliographie generale de la guerre de 
1870-71. 



LECTURE 85. 



EUROPE AFTER THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR: THE 
DREIKAISERBUND. 

Condition of Germany after the successful conclusion of the Franco- 
Prussian War ; enthusiasm felt for a union achieved on the field of 
battle , economic effect of the war indemnity paid by France ; creation 
of a national German coinage ; the reconstitution of the North German 
Confederation as the German Empire ; the Bundesrath increased by six 
voices for Bavaria, four for Wiirtemberg, two for Baden, and two for 
Hesse-Darmstadt ; the Reichstag increased by additional represent- 
atives from the South German states, chosen in the ratio of one deputy 
to each one hundred thousand of population. 



The Third French Republic. 279 

In spite of the triumph of national unity, particularism made itself 
felt in the Reichstag ; though the German princes remained true to the 
Empire, the Polish, Schleswig, and Hanoverian deputies formed sepa- 
rate and irreconcilable parties, while Alsace-Lorraine refused to elect 
any deputies until 1874. 

The administration of Alsace-Lorraine (Elsass-Lothringen); its or- 
ganization as a Reichsland, or territory of the Empire (1879); its gover- 
nors, Manteuffel (1879-85) and Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst (1885-94). 

The reorganization of France ; by the policy of Thiers and the finan- 
cial skill of Pouyer-Quertier, the war indemnity was paid ; France 
finally evacuated by the German army (16 Sept., 1873). 

The Constituent Assembly at Versailles : the position of parties ; the 
majority consisted of monarchists and ultramontanes ; deliberate tardi- 
ness shown in drawing up a new constitution for France ; pending its 
adoption, the presidency of Thiers was renewed (31 Aug., 1871). 

The majority of the Assembly, which favored monarchy, divided into 
Legitimist, Orleanist, and Bonapartist parties, and therefore unable to 
agree upon a king or emperor ; increasing influence of the republican 
minority, led by Gambetta, in France. 

The monarchical majority in the Assembly forced Thiers to resign 
(24 May, 1873), and elected MacMahon to the temporary presidency of 
the Republic; the administration of the Due de Broglie (b. 1821); he 
prepared the way for the restoration of monarchy by appointing anti- 
republican prefets and officials; fusion of the Legitimist and Orleanist 
parties ; the Comte de Paris (b. 1838, d. 1894), grandson of Louis 
Philippe, recognized the Comte de Chambord (b. 1820, d. 1883), grand- 
son of Charles X., as the legitimate king, regarding himself as next 
heir to the throne as the representative of hereditary, not of parliamen- 
tary, monarchy (5 Aug., 1873); the impracticable character of the 
Comte de Chambord ; his refusal to abandon the white flag or to make 
any recognition of parliamentary institutions (27 Oct.); the cause of the 
Comte de Chambord abandoned by the Due de Broglie and the parlia- 
mentary monarchists; election of MacMahon as President of the French 
Republic for seven years (19 Nov.). 

Completion of the French Constitution (25 Feb., 1875): its con- 
servative nature; the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies; the presi- 



280 Spain and Italy, iSyo-j6. 

dency to be held for seven years and the President to be elected not by 
popular vote, but by a joint ballot of the two Chambers; the working of 
parliamentary government in France; frequent changes of ministry, the 
result of the existence of parliamentary groups instead of well-defined 
parties. 

Condition of Spain: election of Amadeus (b. 1845, d. 1890), second 
son of Victor Emmanuel, to be King of Spain (16 Nov.. 1S70); assas- 
sination of Marshal Prim (30 Dec); Amadeus commenced his reign (2 
Jan., 187 1); Don Carlos (b. 184S), grandson of the first Don Carlos, 
raised a rebellion in the northern provinces (1S72); the Carlist War not 
discouraged in the southern provinces of France, owing to the mon- 
archical character of the Constituent Assembh' and its desire to please 
the Comte de Chambord; difficult position of Amadeus; his resignation 
of the throne of Spain (11 Feb., 1S73). 

Proclamation of a Spanish Republic (11 Feb., 1S73) ; Emilio Caste- 
lar (b. 1832, d. 1S99) elected President (9 Sept.) ; General Pavia dis- 
solved the Cortes by armed force (3 Jan., 1874) ; Serrano assumed the 
presidency (3 Jan.) ; the " intrausigente " insurrection suppressed at 
Cartagena (12 Jan.). 

Pronunciamento of Martinez Campos (29 Dec, 1874); overthrow of 
Serrano ; Alfonso XII., only son of Queen Isabella, recognized as King 
of Spain (31 Dec.) ; suppression of the Carlist rebellion completed 
(March, 1S76). 

The political situation in Italy: the government transferred from 
Florence to Rome (1S71); the difficulties in the wa} T of building up a 
national government based upon parliamentary institutions ; particu- 
larism : hostility of the Papacy ; the Right, or conservative party, in 
power under Lanza (1869-73) a11 ^ Minghetti (1S73— 76); the Left, or rad- 
ical party, admitted to office under Depretis (Feb., 1S76); the influence 
of Victor Emmanuel. . 

The attitude of the Papacy towards European politics since the for- 
mation of the Kingdom of Italy : Pius IX. and Cardinal Antonelli, his 
Secretar}^ of State, refused to recognize the new order of things ; their 
religious policy; meeting of an Oecumenical Council, the first since the 
Council of Trent, held at Rome (Dec, 1869-Oct, 1870) ; effect on the 
Papacy of the conquest of Rome and its recognition as the capital of the 
Kingdom of Italy (1870). 



77ie Policy of Bismarck. 281 

Increased power given to the Catholic Church in Germany by the 
absorption of the South German states into the Empire ; Bismarck's 
dislike of Ultramontanism, which he regarded as impairing the spirit of 
national unity ; owing to the strength of the Ultramontane party in 
the Reichstag, Bismarck attacked the Roman Catholic Church in 
Prussia only, where the Protestants had a majority in the Landtag ; 
the Kulturkampf ; laws passed, restraining the power of the Catholic 
Church (1872-1876), especially the May Laws (n-14 May 1873) ; ex- 
pulsion of the Jesuits from Prussia (4 July, 187 2 J ; attitude of Pope 
Pius IX. ; protests of the South German states, and especially of 
Bavaria, against Bismarck's anti-Catholic policy. 

The foreign policy of Bismarck : his aim to prevent France from ob- 
taining any allies in Europe ; he remained on friendly terms with Rus- 
sia, whose Tsar, Alexander II., was the nephew and friend of the Em- 
peror William, but suspected the Russian Chancellor, Gorchakov ; 
being unwilling to trust entirely to Russia, he looked for other allies ; 
England under Gladstone (1868-74) refused to interfere in Continental 
politics ; Bismarck therefore entered into close relations with Austria. 

The position of Austria : discontent of the Slavs with the Dual Con- 
stitution ; Russia encouraged the Pan-Slavic idea, and, therefore, in 
spite of the memory of Sadowa, the Emperor Francis Joseph was ready 
to enter into alliance with the Emperor William ; dismissal of the 
Austrian Chancellor Beust, the enemy of Prussia (8 Nov., 1871) ; he 
was succeeded as Minister of Foreign Affairs by Andrassy (b. 1823, d. 
1890). 

Formation of the Dreikaiserbund, or Alliance of the Three Emperors, 
of Germany, Russia, and Austria (Sept., 1872); comparison between 
the Dreikaiserbund and the Holy Alliance ; its aims : (1) to maintain 
the status quo in Europe ; (2) to act in harmony on the Eastern Ques- 
tion; (3) to oppose the progress of revolutionary, Socialist, and Nihilist 
movements. 

Triumphant position of Bismarck ; he became the dictator of Europe, 
as Metternich formerly had been ; characteristics of his diplomacy. 

Authorities : Miiller, Kaiser Wilhelm ; Hahn t Wilbelm, der erste Kaiser des 
neuen deutschen Reichs ; Oncken, Das Zeitalter dcs Kaisers Wilhelm ; Simon, 
L'Empereur Guillaume et son regne ; Forbes, William of Germany ; Heigel, 



282 The Eastern Question. 

Konig Ludwig II. von Bayern ; Lowe, Life of Bismarck ; Busch, Our Chancellor ; 
Ha/m, Fiirst Bismarck ; Kohl, Fiirst Bismarck ; Miiller, Reichskanzler Fiirst Bis- 
marck ; Simon, Histoire du prince de Bismarck ; Klaczko, The Two Chancellors ; 
Mohl, Das deutsche Staatsrecht ; Whitman, Germany ; Blum, Das deutsche Reich 
zuf zeit Bismarck's ; Hahn, Geschichte des Kulturkampfes im Preussen ; Schulte, 
Geschichte des. Kulturkampfes in Preussen ; Wiermann, Geschichte des Kultur- 
kampfes ; Lefebvre de Behaine, Leon XIII. et le prince de Bismarck ; Pressense, 
La politique religieuse de la Prusse ; Veron, Histoire de l'Allemagne depuis Sa- 
dowa ; Zevort, Histoire de la troisieme republique ; Jules Simon, Le gouverne- 
ment de M. Thiers ; Doniol, M. Thiers (1871-1873) ; Chesnelong, La carapagne 
monarchique d'Octobre 1873 ; Daudet, La verite sur l'essai de restauration en 
1873 ; Du Barail, Mes souvenirs ; Broglie, La mission de M. de Gontaut-Biron 
a. Berlin (1872-78) ; Seche, Jules Simon, sa vie, son temps, son ceuvre (1814-96); 
Hippeari, Histoire diplomatique de la troisieme republique ; Chaudordy, La 
France et la suite de la guerre de 1870-71 ; Gambetta, Discours ; Rogge, CFster- 
reich von Vilagos bis zur Gegenwart (1849-73); Beust, Memoirs; Houghton, 
Origin of the Restoration of the Bourbons in Spain ; Valras, Don Carlos VII. et 
l'Espagne Carliste, and Gallenga, Iberian Reminiscences. 



LECTURE 86. 



THE EASTERN QUESTION: THE RTJSSO-TURKISH WAR, 1877-78. 

Condition of the Turkish Empire during the latter years of the 
Sultan Abdul Aziz: increasing weakness of the civil and financial admin- 
istration; the pledges given after the Crimean War for the more tolerant 
government of the Christians broken; relying on the protection of the 
Western Powers, all reforms were refused. 

Attitude of the Sultan towards Egypt: increased importance of that 
country to England after the completion of the Suez Canal (17 Nov., 
1869); the title of Khedive made hereditar}*- by primogeniture in the 
family of Mehemet Ali (27 May, 1866); the power of the Khedive in 
local affairs increased (June, 1867); the two previous grants confirmed 
and the Khedive allowed to make treaties with foreign powers and to 
maintain an army (June, 1873). 

Continued interest taken by Russia in the Eastern Question: the 
Tsar Alexander II., having freed himself from the restrictions of the 



Russia and the Eastern Question. 283 

Treaty of Paris (1871), desired to intervene on behalf of the Christian 
subjects of the Sultan; by pursuing vigorously the classic policy of 
Russia he hoped to counteract the growth of Nihilism. 

The progress of Russia in Central Asia : the Khan of Khiva forced 
to cede a large part of his territories and to acknowledge the suzerainty 
of the Tsar (24 Aug., 1873) ; Khokand annexed (14 Mar., 1876); 
Russian intrigues in Afghanistan; gradual advance towards the fron- 
tiers of British India. 

Growth of the Pan-Slavic idea in Russia : the writings of Katkov (b. 
1818, d. 1887). 

Character and policy of Alexander Gorchakov (b. 1798, d. 1883), 
Minister of Foreign Affairs (29 Apr., 1856-3 Apr., 1882). 

Attitude of Europe towards the Eastern Question: England, where 
Disraeli (b. 1804, d. 1881) succeeded Gladstone (1874), was appre- 
hensive of the Russian advance on India and Constantinople; purchase 
of the Khedive's Suez Canal shares (25 Nov., 1875); Austrian jealousy 
of Russian interference in southeastern Europe, and dislike of the Pan- 
Slavic propaganda; France too much occupied with internal disputes to 
interfere; Bismarck's declaration that the Eastern Question "is not 
worth the bones of a Pomeranian grenadier. 1 ' 

Outbreak of insurrection among the Christians of Bosnia and Herze- 
govina (July, 1875); encouraged by Prince Milan of Servia and Prince 
Nicholas of Montenegro; the condition of Servia ; adoption of a repre- 
sentative constitution (1869) ; the position in Montenegro ; Daniel, the 
founder of the dynasty, succeeded by his nephew, Nicholas (i860), who 
fomented disturbances against the Turkish government in the neigh- 
boring provinces. 

The Great Powers presented a joint note to the Sultan (31 Jan., 1876), 
demanding reforms and religious liberty for the people of Bosnia and 
Herzegovina ; the Tsar Alexander forbade the Turks to attack Servia 
or Montenegro; the Dreikaiserbund threatened the Turks with pun- 
ishment, if reforms were not granted (12 May); refusal of England to 
act with the other powers (19 May). 

Excitement among the Muhammadan population in the Turkish 
dominions; policy of Midhat Pasha; palace revolution (30 May, 1876); 
overthrow and subsequent murder of Abdul Aziz ; Murad V. pro- 
claimed Sultan. 



284 The Russo-Turkish War y 18JJ-J8. 

Prince Milan of Servia declared war against the Turks (30 June, 
1876); the Servian army organized and commanded by Russian officers 
under Chernaiev; Prince Nicholas of Montenegro declared war against 
the Turks (2 July); the insurgents in Bosnia and Herzegovina declared 
those provinces annexed to Servia and Montenegro. 

Excitement in Turkey; defeat of the Servians (July-Sept.); "the 
Bulgarian massacres " ; intervention of the Great Powers in the name 
of humanity (1 Sept., 1876). 

Deposition of Murad V. and accession of Abdul Hamid II. (31 Aug., 
1876); the Porte promised reform, and the creation of a Turkish par- 
liament; illusory nature of this step; Ignatiev, the Russian ambassador, 
presented an ultimatum to the Sultan demanding the effective protec- 
tion of the Christians in Turkey (31 Oct.). 

Conference of the Great Powers at Constantinople (12 Dec, 1876-20 
Jan., 1877); the Sultan refused to grant the demands made of him 
(18 Jan.); overthrow of Midhat Pasha (5 Feb.). 

Russia and the Turks prepared for war; military enthusiasm in both 
countries; peace signed between Servia and the Sultan (28 Feb.). 

The Tsar declared war against the Turks (24 Apr., 1877). 

The campaign of 1877: Loris Melikov (b. 1826, d. 18S8) advanced 
into Armenia, and the main Russian army under the Tsar traversed 
Romania, crossed the Danube and invaded Bulgaria; the Balkans 
reached and the Shipka Pass seized by Gurko ; successes of the Turks; 
retreat of Loris Melikov and check of the main Russian army by Os- 
man Pasha (b. 1832) at Plevna; reinforcement of the Russian armies; 
assistance rendered by the Romanians ; Loris Melikov took Kars (18 
Nov.), and Todleben stormed Plevna (10 Dec); the Russian advance 
on Constantinople ; passage of the Balkans (Jan., 1S78) ; defeat of the 
Turkish armies ; achievements of Gurko (b. 1828), and of Skobelev (b. 
1843, d. 1882); occupation of Adrianople (20 Jan.); an English fleet en- 
tered the Dardanelles; Convention of Adrian ople (31 Jan., 1878); con- 
clusion of an armistice; the English fleet anchored before Constanti- 
nople (13 Feb.). 

Treaty of San Stefano (3 Mar., 1878) between Russia and Turkey: 
the Turks agreed to the entire independence of Romania, Servia and 
Montenegro with some extension of their terri'tories-; to the creation of 



The Congress of Berlin. 285 

a principality of Bulgaria, and to the grant to Bosnia and Herzegovina 
of the reforms demanded by the Conference of Constantinople, with 
autonomy ; Russia received Kars and Batum and the retrocession of 
Bessarabia from Romania in exchange for the territory ceded to 
Romania by Turkey; by this treaty the power of the Turks in Europe 
would have been practically destroyed. 

General alarm in Europe: protest of Austria against the increase of 
the power of Russia; demand of England, where Salisbury (b. 1830) 
succeeded Derby as Foreign Minister (2 Apr., 1878), that the Treaty 
of San Stefano be submitted to a Congress of the Powers ; England 
made a secret convention with the Turks (4 June), by which she 
received Cyprus and the charge of defending the dominions of Turkey 
in Asia; Bismarck declared himself " an honest broker ". 

The Congress of Berlin (13 June-13 July, 1878): the representatives 
present were: for Germany, Bismarck, Biilow and Hohenlohe-Schillings- 
fiirst ; for Austria, Andrassy, Karolyi and Haymerle ; for Russia, 
Gorchakov, Shuvalovand Oubril ; for England, Beaconsfield, Salisbury 
and Odo Russell; for France, Waddington, Saint- Vallier and Desprez ; 
for Italy, Corti and De Launay ; and for Turkey, Caratheodori Pasha, 
Sadullah Bey and Mehemet Ali Pasha. 

By the Congress of Berlin the Treaty of San Stefano was modified: 
Russia retained the accessions of territory she had then received; Servia, 
Montenegro and Romania were recognized as independent states and 
received small additions of territory; Austria was entrusted with the 
government of Bosnia and Herzegovina; the large principality of Bul- 
garia, as defined by the Treaty of San Stefano, was replaced by a small 
principality of Bulgaria, under Turkish suzerainty, and a semi-inde- 
pendent Turkish province of Eastern Roumelia, while Macedonia re- 
mained part of the Turkish Empire ; Greece received an extension of 
frontier in Thessaly and Epirus. 

Disgust of Alexander II. and Gorchakov at the proceedings of the 
Congress of Berlin, but Russia was too exhausted by the war to under- 
take active opposition: particular resentment felt by Alexander and 
Gorchakov towards Bismarck, whom they declared wanting in grati- 
tude for the services Russia had rendered to Prussia in 1866 and 1870; 
practical dissolution of the Dreikaiserbund, or Alliance of the Three 
Emperors. 



286 The Triple Alliance. 

Authorities : Most of the books cited under Lecture 83 deal also with the 
period of the Russo-Turkish War; but see also Leouzoti-Leduc, L'Empereur Alex- 
andre II.; Bamberg, Geschichte der orientalische Frage; Gallenga, Two Years of 
the Eastern Question ; Vambery, Central Asia and the Anglo-Russian Frontier 
Question, and The Coming Struggle for India ; Hellwald, The Russians in Cen- 
tral Asia; Rawlinson, England and Russia in the East; Popowski, Rival Powers in 
Central Asia : Liwof, Michel Katkof et son epoque ; Leroy-Beaulieu, La France, 
la Russie et l'Europe ; Wyrouboff, La Question d'Orient et le Traite de Berlin; 
Rogge, CBsterreich seit der Katastrophe Hohenwart-Beust, (1873-78) ; Rustow, 
Der orientalische Krieg in den Jahren 1877 und 1878 ; Le Faure, Histoire de la 
guerre d'Orient, 1877-78 ; Farcy, La guerre sur le Danube, 1877-78 ; Greene, The 
Russo-Turkish War ; Hozier, The Russo-Turkish War ; Baker, The War in Bul- 
garia ; Williams, The Armenian Campaign ; Daily News, War Correspondence, 
1877-78; Gay, Plevna, the Sultan and the Porte ; Bacarescu, Rumanien's Antheil 
am Kriege, 1877-78, and Brunswick, Le Traite de Berlin. 



LECTURE 87. 



EUROPE TO 1890: THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE. 

In his fear of the resentment of Russia for his attitude at the Congress 
of Berlin, Bismarck drew closer to Austria and signed an offensive and 
defensive alliance with the Emperor Francis Joseph (7 Oct., 1879); this 
alliance, when joined in 1882 by Italy, became the Triple Alliance, which 
agreed to check the desire of France to recover Alsace and Lorraine, and 
the attempts of Russia to reopen the Eastern Question ; from the acces- 
sion of the Tsar Alexander III. (1881) until the end of the administra- 
tion of Bismarck (1890), the Triple Alliance was on more or less friendly 
terms with Russia, dominated Europe, and maintained peace ; frequent 
interchange of royal visits. 

Germany : internal policy of Bismarck ; after the death of Pope Pius 
IX. and the election of Pope Leo XIII. (1878), Bismarck softened the 
application of the May Laws (1880-87), and entered into negotiations 
with the Papacy ; end of the Kulturkampf (1887) ; Bismarck and So- 
cialism ; his legislation against the Socialists ; relations between Prus- 
sia and the other German states ; Bismarck's colonial policy ; death of 
the Emperor William I. (9 Mar., 1888) ; death of his successor, the Em- 



The Great Powers to i8go. 287 

peror Frederick (15 June) ; accession of the Emperor William II. (b. 
1859) ; his character and policy. 

Russia: assassination of the Tsar Alexander II. (13 Mar., 1881) ; 
the reign of the Tsar Alexander III. (1881-94) ; his character and 
policy ; Gorchakov succeeded by De Giers (3 Apr., 1882) as Minister of 
Foreign Affairs ; relations with Turkey and the Balkan States; pro- 
gress of Russia in Central Asia ; annexation of Merv (11 Feb., 1884) 5 
the affair of Penjdeh (30 Mar., 1885) ; war with England averted ; the 
Trans-Caspian and Trans-Siberian railroads ; Russian finance ; De 
Witte (b. 1849) ; internal affairs ; Nihilism. 

France: MacMahon, President of the French Republic (1873-79), 
Jules Grevy (1879-87), and Sadi Carnot (1887-94) 5 desire to recover 
Alsace and Lorraine ; the second ministry of the Due de Broglie (17 
May-20 Nov., 1877) ; he made another fruitless effort to restore the 
monarchy ; since his overwhelming defeat at the elections of 14 Oct., 
1877, the government of France has been frankly republican ; the in- 
fluence of Gambetta ; struggle with the Catholic Church similar to 
Bismarck's Kulturkampf (1879-81) ; death of Gambetta (31 Dec, 
1882) ; banishment of the Orleanist and Bonapartist princes (22 June, 
1886) ; the Panama Canal scandal ; Boulanger (b. 1837, d. 1891) ; the 
Centenary of 1789 and Paris Exposition (1889) ; material prosperity of 
France, but increasing discredit of parliamentary government ; fre- 
quent changes of ministry ; France in Africa, Madagascar and the 
Farther East. 

Italy: death of Victor Emmanuel and accession of Humbert (9 Jan., 
1878) ; death of Pope Pius IX. (7 Feb., 1878) and election of Leo XIII. 
— Pecci — (20 Feb.) ; death of Garibaldi (2 June, 1882) ; relations be- 
tween the Italian kingdom and the Papacy; "Italia irredenta"; colonial 
policy ; attempt to occupy the Abyssinian coast of the Red Sea : finan- 
cial distress of Italy ; the ministries of Depretis (b. 1813, d. 1887) and 
Crispi (b. 1819) ; Italy as a member of the Triple Alliance. 

Austro-Hungary : the dual monarchy ; its failure to promote a 
national patriotism ; the selfish policy of the Magyars ; discontent of 
the Czechs and Slavs ; wise policy of the Emperor Francis Joseph, 
whose personality has held the Empire together; his share in the Triple 
Alliance; Andrassy, State Chancellor (1871-79), Haymerle (1879-81) 



288 'The Lesser Powers to 1890. 

and Kalnoky (1881-95) '> relations with Turkey and the Balkan States ; 
the Austrian administration of Bosnia ; the ministries of Taaffe (b. 1833, 
d. 1895) in Austria, and of Tisza (b. 1830) in Hungary. 

Sweden and Norway : reigns of Marshal Bernadotte under the title 
of Charles John XIV. (1818-44), of Oscar I. (1844-59), of Charles XV. 
(1859-72) and of Oscar II. (1872- ) ; opposition in Norway to the 
dual monarchy ; democratic and republican ideas of the Norwegians ; 
since 18 15 Sweden has ceased to play a prominent part in European 
politics. 

Denmark: reign of Christian IX. (1863- ); constitutional struggles; 
his relations with Russia and England. 

The Netherlands: death of William III. (23 Nov., 1890); succeeded 
in the Netherlands by his daughter, Wilhelmina (b. 1880), and in 
Luxemburg by Adolphus, Duke of Nassau. 

Belgium : character and policy of Leopold II. (1865- ); his interest 
in the Congo Free State. 

Spain: death of Alfonso XII. (25 Nov., 1885); succeeded by his son, 
Alfonso XIII. (b. 17 May, 1886), under the regency of his widow, 
Maria Christina ; the ministries of Canovas del Castillo (b. 1828, d. 
1897) and of Sagasta (b. 1827). 

Portugal: reigns of Pedro V. (1853-61), Luis I. (1861-89) an( i 
Charles I. (1889- ); the career of Saldanha (b. 1791, d. 1876); 
growing spirit of nationality; financial troubles. 

Switzerland: growth of republican and democratic ideas. 
The Eastern Question after the Russo-Turkish War : attitude of 
Russia, England and the Triple Alliance ; danger of European war 
arising out of the situation in Bulgaria. 

Turkey : the Sultan Abdul Hamid II. ; his personal government; 
introduction of Western ideas; clever foreign policy. 

Greece : reign of George I. ; action of Greece during the Russo- 
Turkish War ; Thessaly given to Greece by the Congress of Berlin and 
occupied (1881); desire to annex Crete and Macedonia. 

Romania declared an independent kingdom and Prince Charles pro- 
claimed king (26 Mar., 1881); development of parliamentary govern- 
ment ; John Brateano (b. 1822, d. 1891); " Romania irredenta." 

Montenegro: Prince Nicholas; his close relations with Russia; the addi- 



Bulgaria and Egypt. 289 

tional territory, including the port of Antivari, granted by the Congress 
of Berlin, transferred by the Turks under the pressure of the Great 
Powers (188 1.) 

Servia: proclamation of Prince Milan as king (6 Mar., 1882); war 
with Bulgaria (1885); abdication of Milan (6 Mar., 1889) in favor of 
his son, Alexander I. (b. 1876). 

Bulgaria: Alexander of Battenberg elected Prince of Bulgaria (29 
Apr., 1879); general uprising in Eastern Roumelia (18 Sept., 1885) and 
declaration of its union with Bulgaria ; Servia declared war against 
Bulgaria (14 Nov.); victories of Prince Alexander at Slivnitza (16-19 
Nov.); armistice signed (21 Dec); Prince Alexander forced to abdicate 
and withdraw from Bulgaria (3 Sept., 1886); power and influence of 
the Regent Stambulov (b. 1855, d. 1895); he secured the election of 
Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, as Prince of Bulgaria ( 7 July, 1887), but 
continued in power as Prime Minister ; disapproval by the Great 
Powers, especially Russia, of events in Bulgaria. 

Egypt : the rivalry of England and France in the Mediterranean; 
dual control established over the government of Egypt, which was 
practically bankrupt (1878); deposition of the Khedive Ismail (26 June, 
1879); Arabi Pasha raised an insurrection against the new Khedive, 
Tewfik (1881); riot in Alexandria (11 June, 1882); England inter- 
vened, bombarded Alexandria (n July), overthrew Arabi Pasha in the 
battle of Tel-el- Kebir (13 Sept.), and maintained a garrison in Egypt; 
opposition of France and protests of the Sultan; first appearance of the 
Mahdi in the Sudan in the summer of 1881; his destruction of two 
Egyptian armies under Hicks Pasha (3-6 Nov., 1883), and under Baker 
Pasha (4 Feb., 1884); England undertook to defend Egypt against 
the Mahdi; return of Gordon Pasha (b. 1834) to Khartum (Feb., 1884); 
expedition of Wolseley to relieve Khartum (Sept., 1884-July, 1885); 
fall of Khartum and murder of Gordon (26 Jan., 1885); the Mahdi 
complete master of the Sudan; his death (21 June); desultory warfare 
carried on against his successor, the Khalifa; organization of a new 
administrative and judicial system in Egypt under English super- 
vision ; the work of Sir Evelyn Baring, Lord Cromer (b. 1840). 

Africa: France established a protectorate over Tunis (12 May, 1881) ; 
the Germans occupied Angra Pequena on the west coast of Africa (2 



290 Dismissal of Bismarck. 

May, 1S83); Massowah, on the Red Sea, occupied by the Italians (6 Feb., 
1885) ; interest in the Congo region of Leopold, King of the Belgians, 
who called for a conference on Africa, which met at Berlin (15 Nov., 
1884-26 Feb., 1885) ; the Conference, in the General Act of 24 Feb., 
1885, decided that occupation of territory, in order to be recognized, must 
be effective, established a free trade zone, and required the suppression 
of the slave trade and slavery ; another result of the Conference was 
the establishment of the Congo Free State under the sovereignty of 
Leopold II. ; rapid progress of the partition of Africa ; the Brussels 
Conference (18 Nov., 1889-2 July, 1890) took further measures to sup- 
press the slave trade and regulated the sale of fire-arms and spirituous 
liquors to the natives ; the work of Stanley (b. 1841). 

Bismarck, the dominant force in European politics of this decade ; 
effect upon his position of the death of the Emperors William I. and 
Frederick ; his disagreement with the Emperor William II. 

Attempts to form a Franco- Russian Alliance to oppose the Triple Al- 
liance of Germany, Austria and Italy. 

Dismissal of Bismarck (17 Mar., 1890) ; retrospect of his twenty 
years' dictatorship over Europe. 

Authorities : The events described in this lecture are too recent to permit of 
satisfactory historical treatment, but contemporary accounts of all the events may 
be found in the Annual Register and in Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia, while 
general accounts are to be found in Dilke, Present Position of European Politics, 
published in 1887, and in Seignobos, Histoire politique de l'Europe contemporaine 
(1814-96). Reference may be made to a few special works, such as: Daudet, His- 
toire diplomatique de l'alliauce Franco-Russe (1873-1893); Leroy-Beaulieu, La 
France, la Russie, et 1' Europe ; Lefebvre de Behaine, Leon XIII. et le prince de 
Bismarck ; Philippson, Friedrich III. als Kronprinz und Kaiser ; Rodd, Frederick, 
Crown Prince and Emperor; Morrison, Russia under Alexander III.; Lowe, 
Alexander III. of Russia; Krausse, Russia in Asia; Zevort, Histoire de la troisieme 
republique; Lecomte, Les rallies, histoire d'un parti, 1886-1898 ; Stillman, Fran- 
cesco Crispi ; Smith, Memoirs of Saldanha ; King Charles of Romania, Aus dem 
Leben, Aufzeichnungen und Augenzeugen ; Sergeant, Greece in the Nineteenth 
Century; Berard, La Turquie et l'Hellenisme contemporaine; Laveleye, The Bal- 
kan Peninsula ; Huhn, The Struggle of the Bulgarians for National Independence 
under Prince Alexander; Mil'ner, England in Egypt; Traill, Lord Cromer; Hake, 
Journals of Gordon at Khartum ; and Keltie, The Partition of Africa. 



APPENDIX 





H 






i 




Ph 






tk 


hH 


o 




oi 


— 




Ph 




« 


]*> 


X 








« 


1— ( 


fe 


OS 
C5 


o 
Pn 





W 


o 


GO 




<*>. 






i— 1 


fH 




Z 


CO 


1 

O 


«3 


3 


w 


o 

CO 


Pi 




Oh 




r-l 


« 


5 


CU 


P* 




w 


<o 


<i 


« 




H 


8 



-b 



^ 



id m 



^ 5 8 

^1 - 
*• • £ ^ 

&S ft ? 

ft} s ^ 



S3 
a | 

03 <£ 
ft>? 



Or 



•S o 



ft 5" 



sT s *> s 



"y'5S 



•s.S 



<3 
u 8 

'en k^ 



•■H 0\ 
£3 "^> 



•5<x> en 

03 LO CD 

ft A 



a.b 



bo> 



CD ii 












* w iz; 

tn i-i u 



o 
o 

^ 




OS M 

.S'S 

a .Bo 

iSoZw 



fOU-,NOC0 o 

0000- 



jd 03 

+j be 

03 C 



t>CO On -c 

M-Mlt 

NO NO vO NO 



-1- ir\D O N fO 
<N CM -n -1- -=t- rt- 
NO NO NO NO NO NO 



(293) 






c 



w 

Ah 
<! 



H 
Y, 

w 
o 
w 

• «<* 



o 



a <u m o 



■. . p ^ 
*• ■« r k P 



5f 



rt o 

rt £ o 

.cow 



S 



Hfia 
h m h 

■Sfi ° 

■Oo.S 



F= 



ft 



ao«o 






E~S 

"J2 *->".C 



C o 
C^ 



p«^-2 



a 



VOVDVOXI 



VO t-» r- t^co CO 

VO ^C *■£> \C MD *0 

( 294 ) 



Q\ -*vO Q 









H fr> 








£ z 


s> 






w « 


t-J » 






. o o 


41 -^5 

•n a 

Jaii 






8 W W • :s 




a 

5 


Bire 
Ivan VI. 

BiREN, R 

Anne, R 
Elizabeth 
Restashe' 


o 


p->< 



^ 




^ 










■«, 




3y 






"Kl 












,<^J 




^O 





>f» 



,-rS^ <^- 



h « 



Q 
W 

<1 



b 



4> g 



■so? 



S o 



;-2 «■><> 

5S s? "** 53 "*» 

« ~ « 

A* ^ "> ^ *S 



o 

W 

erf 
i> w ■ 
,„ "^ M 



05 <o 



.V. 

?* g ^ «3 



»3£ 

41 4) a 
1h J3.3 

•s § 



2 ca 



t^w (*}■>*■ 



^O NO 



(»Q5) 



M N 






T3 . 

r, tn 

on 41 

S-« *-■ 

5 « 

^H . 

■2'c-g 

O C3 n 

to o^ 



lO >0 IT) lO 

N N t^ r^ 



•** 


£ 


^l 




s 


<3 


tvi 


°o 


■Vi 












r <i 




<o 





ftO 



*X> 



5 S 



U 



ft. 
Ph 

< 



f 



n_bs 



<ucT a 






^ % w . 



.2^ 






^ Cj 



; ^ o 









<o 



CVffa 

^ g s *- 



I> r^ 1^ l^ I 






r^oo oo oo 



*0 t^ 

oo oo 



O 0"2 

jj ft" 

t- c ft 
o — . n 

p, o tn .£ 

° S'o £ 

gj CU — ,-* 

.^§« 

OO O « [L o <0 



-5f IOMD f^ ON 

t^ r^ r-~ t-^ t-» 



< 7 ^) 





Alexander I. 
A. Vorontsov. 

Czartoryski 




•c 

•ft 

s 

cc 

X 

1 

b 

l 


c 

o Si 

.ft 

S 

ft; 










! 

1 
















t-1 
cr 



*c 

X 
o 










.ft 






.•a 




-> . "cT 

O ON 

Z ■ ~<» 

^ . £ 

8 8 

.ft <u ,fti 

^3 ^ 


s 




.8 

ft 
















ai 

u 
a) 
ft 
cd 
B 

c 

• pq 

• xi 
ft 
<u 
tr 
O 
Hi 




■ > 

" -a 

a 

a) 

5 

• '-3 

. ft 






.8 

8! 


5 





£ 


' 






cj 
CO 

o-S 
ft 5 


CO 

Ih' 

O 
ft 

1 


co 

u 

O 
ft 


W 
u 
(3 

-5 o 

1st 

a a k 

O •* 


CO 

ft" 

i 




CO 
o 

ft 

> ^ 

bxi 5 

t- K 

O ft 
oj <o 

O 


ft 
^ CO • 

g*.Vi b<) 

a ^> >5 


a 

1 






In 

o 
u 

<u 

ft 

s 
w 

a 
o 

V 

"o 

ft 

cd 


















bio 

B ^.s 

i-h . cd^ . 

3 IS s 


5 


o 
bn 

X . 

CO g 

■So 

J3fn 




ft . 

8 y 

■Sp8 

4? 


Emperors, 

Holy Roman Empire : 

after 1806, 

Austria. 


M 

o 

CO 


o 


3 

CO 




.<3 


a 
"c 

a 

cd 
u 

ft 

O 
CO 


ft • 

% ■ 

O 

00 


00 

o 

CO 


.V 

a 
o 

CO 


o 
oc 


cc 


01 

00 


00 


1/ 

cc 


3 00 

co 


c 
oc 


cc 




cc 


CM 

oc 


cc 


CN 

cc 


- cc 

CN 
CC 


a 

c 
cc 


\ 



( 2 97 ) 



u ft 






£ • 
W 8 

Si? 



i<i 









<3 



Q 
W 

< 






H 
O 



cd(J 



W. 



<^ W^ <!, 



<u 8 
« 8 



*» Si ** 

<u S <u 

« s « 

B O 6 

■►9- ^ 



=1& 



ftC .5 

.H '* ^ ^ 



K S C 









0--H 

45 m 

° A" 1 
ftft 



O w 
►J 



45 ^ 



2 k 



tL^ 



:cooo CO 00 COOOCO CO 00 CO CO CO oooooo ooooooco 



• — - <>J 

is "^ 



ft <-i 

I! 



ftp 

a) »- 

£3 



3 






5^ 



CO 00 <X CO CC CO 00 



( 298 ) 



3£ 



. 5» 
2 **•» 






■3 -fS 



Z<i 



O <U 



O fa o 



w 

in £ U fq g 
ft <u CMCO<< 



-M 4J *^» 

CO ' 

"tn'tn . 

oi <u m 

»— l— i — ■ 
P- Ph ><J 

(Li cd C 
-w u o 

Ci l)r-J 

ota< 



2 ^ "> 
S* S « 

ell 



as 

■811 

i-i ►=» r e 



~2 H nj 

§ *s. s 

<0 « M 

»i <J t-H 

^ . S^X 
S3§S>o 

& 2 - ° <" 



G^ 



e 



£33 



C^ 



U 



<" Lt 



63 



•2^8 



SiD^ ft 

^.K>« a; 
<3^3 o ? 



ft .3 



SS 



a 



!S 



O i-i P) ■<*• lO 

CO 00 00 CO 00 
00 00 00 00 00 



o 



"S 2 



. S 



O W THON on 
o\ o\ <y\ o\ C\ <j\ 

00 00 00 00 00 00 



( 299 ) 



w 
o 



X 
»— i 

Q 

PL. 
P-< 



8 







PS 
W 


i8 


W 


. 


fs 


« 




os 


o 


5 


li* 


OS 


Pn 


n 


00 




>s 




1—1 

1 

o 
o 


P* 
W 

CO 

w 


F 2 
5< 


w 


CO 


W 


<i 


J 


rH 


►4 


P 


p 






.1 






H 


^ 


H 






<u 



^s 

^ 



^ 



I 






6 >d 



8' 

^ k *J J 

O ^ S K* 

* 6 



a_gfe 



E 


a 
o 


cri 








a 




M 






o 

c 



73.2 

■T- 1-. 
•am 

o 



Co OJ 

•S° £ 

BCOfl 

23«£ 



35 « 

3 o "o 



B i- 

•* 2 

•U *J 

(uC/2 



13 ™ J . 



1-9 

II 

So 



si's 

en cd g 

3^3 



35 g 



B " lo 

mbjo 

"Sb.S.S 

S 



3 






*0 vo MD *0 VO 



£~ 



vO VO 0\D\0 VO 



(300 



■So 
^5 



•- 1 i-5 



o i_ 

s° o 



4J .^3 



O 



o d 

<u g 

■3 a 

Q 



<r. 2 



vh a o 
u a 

"8 *■- 

OJ O cd 



. O 

.3 -~ 

— "TJ cd 

•—Cm 

^9"S 



• 8 

•»^ « ^ to 






aso 



Ph 



13 
« 



o w 
p 



"Sf. 









Si 

^ 5> a 



m 



%*% 



,Q en 
*V-i oj 
O > 



M 



O rJ-IO VO 



VOVOVO VOVO VO VOVOVO VO VO VOVOVO VO VO VO VOVO VOVO 



(301 ) 



-2 s°- 
h 5 ? 






a> 



o .2 



^ 


<3 


s « 


^ 




c'S 


■"s 


r~* <u 


O l, 


<J 


^ 


^ 




1 k 

A^ 


a 





3 



** a >» 

o bc M > 

+j bo 4) n) 

a <u 4> t/J 

O v, o 

a p4 



.3 <u 

,3Vd 

aw 



s ° 

Cfl_f 



52 S n ° 
• *5 xi ™ 

41 W 3 .213 41 

LLA i, 03 jh .^ 






ll'. 

■^ a! ti- 

■33»fr 






to 






li^-fc. 



W 



(/) o 

? >- 

bx) o 

3 - 1 - 1 



. o 






>> 


;W 


C 

o 




X 






. M 


(0 


hf 


4h 


3 


o 



w^ 



0\0 o 

VO t^ t^ 



t*)Thvo a- o 
o o o o m 
t^. t> r^ t^ r^ 



h 



M M 1-1 , PI 



^ 



( 3°2 ) 



J" 
111! 






rtt! 

■£ <U 

%<% 

tr. G to 

,§■■3 M 

<ja o 






el 

^ a! 

S55 



,0 
Pi 
P. 
1) 

Pi 






".2 



3 g« 

£ 3 



2 ° 

E,to 



c 5 



03 ^ 



• ttito 



s 






to — 



to.q 



^o 






lO VO O w 



t-^ t^ 



t^ t^ r^ c-» t^r^r^c^c^c^ 



t^r^r^ t^ 



( 3°3) 



■Si K 

|| 

<; 


| 










1 

C' 

•to 

'1 


I—* 

£ 




M 

2 

o 
a 

o 

<L> 
M- 
















M 

M- 








gffi o 


"5 


M 1— 1 l— ( 
III 


a 

! 

i 


1 












rr mm,-; 
5, £s';§ 






m!5 

"J si, 

H o3 
03 -- — 




> . 

o "- 1 

*3 en 

M t-f 


a; • 

03 • 

O ' | 


6 




>m 

01 J3 




















IS 

-a 

ai 

"3 

< 






"3 


1 

>M 


















































Denmark. 






> 

M 



tL 

i- 






















> 

C 



'•£ 

(T 




M 

> 

o 
°C 

<u 

a; 
u 
% 






c 

_o3 
en 

a 








8 

•a 

"3 


C 
a. 


c 
oc 


C 
cx 


en 

OJ 
u 

03 

O 

Ov C 

O i- 
OG X 






oc 




m a 

M o 

03 Qj 

oc 

00 vc 

-> (\ 
00 oc 


00 
00 




OC 


oc 


3 

- f 
oc 


■>0 

OC 


u 

O 

O 

^*-oc 

- -r - 
co oc 



OC 


- u - 


>■ 

X 

tn 

<u 
T! 

a 

CO 00 




VC 

cc 


t-, 

Oj 

o 
en 

o 

3 O \C 
COOC 


c 

» OC 

cc 


en 

CO 



( 3°4 ) 






W"? 



CJ 



<to 



o tn 

o 2 



t— < 


> 




1— 1 


>-r 




1— 1 






X! 


to 


Oi 




n 


C2 


>— i 




00 




CO 

B 


I— 1 

1 

c 
o 




h4 


CO 


n4 


P 


iH 


Ph 


Pi 




eu 


B 




< 










^ 



S 8 

OS 

I 1 



-55 £ 8 & 

(-3 -■< Q cP5 



to M 



O o 

° a 

3.9 






b* o> 
C «"> 

M u 

- o 

1-5 .5 

«g 

J a. 

to CO 



go 



p 


lO 


to 


M 






!/) 






fi 



""^ cs 
O C 

tn i- 

oto 



<u be 



X> 



IS 

a o s^TfL, 

T3 w 



> . 
to 



n H N !1 COOiO c^oo 

VO MDVO VO MD \£> *0 ^O 

(3°5) 



S.9 
.a 



•- 1 j * 
id « 3 



>toa 



*i bo a-! in 



O LOCO D IO 
Tt- io lOVD *0 
VO VO VO ^o *o 






s 






W 
Ph 
< 



"fe 



g 



c^ 5 t\ e o, 






O 3 
SO 



<i u to 

o 



o >, 



,« 



O 



o 



■8-3 



lH U 

O c3 

a 



M 



« 



Scow 
<«m.m 

1H O O 



01 

5» 

S->L2 

S ^'O 

' 0) CM 



• J 1 - 

.o 



O £ 






X 



> 1=1 






io^O On w 
VO\0 MD VJD 






O O 



CO 



•T3 



Sen 
<u o 



w ro-* 



N « <N CO 



(306) 






hq . 



J3 ft 



Ph ft 



a; s 



s> £ 



U £t3 <u 

Q W 



c s 



•«3 



t 



in ft 



w 



2 ft 



bQ 


s 


-M 


o 


S 


"q 


« 










.•-) 


$ 


8 


fe; 


£ 



ft 

1—1 "J 






O p,C 

C <li rt 

v- 1- 

oj <D 

ft fe 






tn 



rt 



3 .3 

art Vh 
CO ^ 



g ..2 

a°J 

01 ° o 
O 



-a 









« a 



MR 



MS 

<D bjo 

a o 



M 


lO 


f^ 


n 


00 


00 


a- to 


On 


CO 


LO O Tt- OVD 






<T> 


ro 


to 


rr 


«* 




LOVO 


VD 


t^ 


t^COCO O ON 








C^ 


f^ 


t>. 


t^ 


t-> 


t> t^ 


r-~ 


t^ 


r^ r^ t^ t^ t^ 


t^ 


t^ t-> 



( 307 ) 



^ 


^ 


<& 


*0 <U 


8? 

s 


£-5 
o73 


^ 




So 



cd m 
Ph o 



ft 






2 -a 1 - 1 



p< 



S-c 



'W 



i-H o 
en bJO 






e 



p 
w 

Pm 



^ 






ea*.2 

Si 

Ph W 



=3 a 

32 



3 cd 

o'C 



fe 



T3 

« . 



B 


dj 




.14 


T) 


3 


.1. 


w 


to 




bx) tri 


B 


11 






»«; Hi S 



£^ 



C/) o/i- 1 

ft 



5^& 



■gs 



«-3 



B «i 



to o 






-1 W 

bo-Si 



^ 



T3 
V 

to* 

7,1 



tf^to 



o o <u b 



> B 



5 « 



JO 



>-s 



.a to 

toVS 



ojO P< tn >-. 

<u cd 3 "-• 

Oiitoto 



CO 00 00 



(308) 



^ 



•5, 



£ 


K 


^ 


"? 








■-J 


<tt 




-^ 


K 




?! 


Q 


£ 



s 



<< 


j*> 


4 


<3 


t3 


S 




?> 



^•3 



V: 






s * • 
3 * 






oil 



■ -w • 



00 oooooooo 



oo oooo 



On O t^VOCO 
OO 00 OOOO 00 



<3\ m t^ m N fO^D OO 
C^OO 00 O^PCMTi 
COOOOOOOOOOOCOCO 



(3°9) 







_ 




?, 










w 




o 










Ph 


















H 










3 




<! 




w 






W 









Ph 


> 








w 

Ph 
Pi 






1— 1 

X 


< 
Pi 


o 
Pi 


.-. 


o 
o 


.~ 


< 


t— 1 

Q 


w 



Oh 

o 


>< 

i-r 
o 

W 

w 


o 
o 

00 

T— 1 

1 

o 
o 




CO 

co 

00 

rH 

1 


c 


W 


WD 


w 


co 





00 


H 


Ph 


05 


t- 1 


1— 1 


H 


tH 


fa 


Pu 


W 


Hi 

O 








o 


< 


P 






fa 
O 




t/J 

w 

U 






O 






fc 






JH 














rj 




o 




P4 












Ph 



Ph 



05 
00 












:V 



S 






^ 



So? 



*i <3 



C)k} 



*£ 

oq 



►4 



&2i 






U nJ 



In 02 



fl — - r- o *-; 
> cr rt <l> <u ^ 



0J.H 

a 



3 £ 



.S o 



<+-c 


^c 


n" 


CJ 


id 






On W 


rt 






w 


Vf> 


VO 


Ih 

o 












H-» 


13 




> 

V 


nl" 


13 
V 

.1) 


"3 


■a 




ID 
to 


X, 

o 
PQ 




T3 

c 


aj ' — ■> 

tH P-H 



■3"8 

O o i) 

o 



n 



^S 



\OVO VO VO 



(3io) 






Q.IU 
00 >> 

Oi-T 



£ «3 



W gj 



s ° <=> 






<u.2 

OS 

•S& 






•SflS 

a££j 

*>3 l-n 



ft <u 



ca C 

as 



<" C rt bo 

a 



<J > 



<o V O 



•Eq 



fs. 



3 
bo 



w 



H 2 

is 03 

XS bo 

^ a3^ 



n 



o 



^ 






Horn 

a 



«>q 



.2 3 



DO 



lO lO 



VD CO lO VO <Ti On 
ION N r-~ N t^ 

VO VO VO VO vo VO 



en tn " 

^'3 ft 
is o~ 

09 , *■▼"< 

O Oh 

O lOO- 

CO 00 00 



(3«) 









65 






■9 . w . 

. <-< .- a 





.0 





C 
:0 


10 




o 


rfl 




C 


Vh 





Hh 


> 



ftO 

■a ,2 

Is 



to rt 

I'S 

S en 

v d 



a 

o 

a (LI be II 



i. S<Si 



a -2 

v-,:0 

•a a 



03 01 

'3 • "S 

o bo Cj m 
"o 3 ft- 



3 > 

ft 



o 

a a 

•a 2 

o > 






8-g 









w 2* 



Si On) 

a 



CI -J-J 

boo 

4J o 
O 



bo 

.5 a 
W"3 



boO 



"fc 



^2H 



S'O 






•a cs 



&°5 



O CD I 

<1o£ 

in •" 
<u ft - 

a 



^ 



W M « 



.-s-a 
3 ft 



y o 



.a o 
O-o 

r<-; io VO 



( 3") 



Elector- Arch- 
bishops of 
Treves. 






o 
C 

c 

0. 


rt 

o 

■s 

to 
rt 








41 "O 

5.3 

a o 


Elector- Arch- 
bishops of 
Cologne. 




Archduke 
Maximilian. 

(Electorate 
abolished). 


Elector- A rch- 
bi shops of 
Mayence. 




03 

rt 
■gH 

41 > 


73 

Q 

0] 

to 

a 












- 








.2 m 

rQ as 
<U 3 












53 "Q 










1 

1777 Charles Theodore (unites the 

electorates). 
I7&1 


ft 
U 

O 
i— i 

c 
.2 

S 
"S 

at 

O M 

t^cc 


G 


« 

> 

« 

O 


S3 


t- 


5 CO 






0) 

O 
C 

.2 
| 

rt 

3 iri 

O 
CO 



Hesse- Darm- 
stadt ; Grand 
Dukes, 1806. 


tn 

'3 
O 
►4 














Hesse-Cassel ; 

Electors, iSoj, 

Gr. Dukes, 1814. 




(Merged in kgm. 
of Westphalia) . 

William I. 


Baden ; Elec- 
tors, iSoj, Grand 
Dukes, i8oq. 






Charles Fred'k. 
Charles Louis 
Frederick. 


i-J 

03 

"3 




Wilrtemberg ; 

Electors, 1803, 

Kings, 1806. 


c 
"E 

a. 
»c 
a. 










a 




Hanover ; 
Kings, 1814. 




E 

c 

4J 

bi 
1- 


1? 

rt 

,S3 

ft 

« 
11 

,0 




<r 

4 

V- 

C 
4. 

c 










a 

4i tn 

CI cj) 










cc 
cc 




* 

$ . 

13 

13 




b 

c 
cc 


cc 


S M 


cc 


■vc 

cc 





(313) 



ci"tt 






H 



ft . 

UJ'C 



fc 



bog 

5 * 

> rt 



m 






<Jdi 



h 


« Hi 



W Q 

"3 w 
o (4 



O 



.2^ 



tu 0) 



S 



H 
O 
Pti 

O" 

; J 

1 o 

> °< 

•d » 

.0»-J 



COCOCOCO CO CO cococo coco cocococo 



(314) 



n 

K 
H 



Q 




W 


;> 


a 


c4 


rt 


P 


O H 


fe 


z 




w 


r/5 


a 


w 




H 


w 


<J H 


H £ 


IX! 


w 






W 


i— i 


z 


£ 


w 




eu 


W 


W X 


« 


f— i 


£ 




s— 1 


o 


M 


£ 



en £> 

Q 



W « 

o 

CO 

W 

c4 



"?"8 

~ cy-* 
"? J) s 

3§ 



F ^ « -2 § 



I! 

<3 XI 



C< 



W 






5?^ 



■2 £ ^ Hi 



8 5>S> 

■o *> <o 

^) "^ (^ Or, 



ft 



^ 



"Hi -a 

8^ 8 

•2 ^ ;- & 

8 13 N *• 

§"^2 2 



^ 



<Sj ^O <U 



Xi 

cd <u 8 w 
fe > tB 



> § £ 

^O go 

C oj n) 



CVS 

•O tot. 
(-J oco 3 

~ _c <*- ti. 

* i_ a •-' 



'P.B-1 



g _ 

Sin co 

^ oj o a 

. o 'O TJ rt 

> B 3 X 






(315) 



O 



<U s? w 

O g-O 



o a ,£. n 

. ■ - > "n 3 

_, CS O !-> O 

■c S.s g 

B°oS 

<! 



^< 



•oEoS 
■"•S *■ 5 

aJ O I- O 
B ft boa; O 
eg 3 .13 

'C o.S e 



> 



B 
<u o 



00 O0C» O0OOO0 COCO 00 






I 
> 



Q 
W 

Ph 
Ph 

< 



«5 



5 Li 



!" 



.^> 






>°p.s f „- 



s 



>3 *? ; 



3^* 






3^ 















v 



5 £ < 

"« ■> - 

s ^ 

<u S Jj 



be. 



^ 



= CO 

^•2 CO 
"•« O S <-i 

<su r- i_ ij - 

"O « £ -M 



«.S 



■C.SP 

a! CO 



O O c 



«M 1 

o be 

t: o 
<u ^ 
to 



CO o\ 

COCO 



L H 

if 






(316) 



> 

X 

Q 

W 

Ph 
Ph 



z 






b ft-a 

— »-. o3 




















o 

t-H 

CO 




CO 
. "5 












u 


i-5 






CO 

« 






.2 «co 






5 




c 

V- 

V 


> 






a 

a 
P 

CO 

a 

CO 




Q M 

3b 

9 a 
ga 


o 

a 

03 
<U 

So 










5" 

w 


a 










ii 


T- 


fc 






w 

W 



U 

■V 

a, 


7 

1C 












a, 

CO 




CO 


j g 


1 


? 




o 

1-1 





o 








a 


2 




ft Q.CO 

v II 






.2 
"C 

a) 


6 

a 


3 




a 




O 














S< 


s 




"P 8? 




CO 


03 
P 

ft 


O O oj 


■is 








II 

S 


3 







^T3 




£ 


O 


01 

41 








| 


3 


o 


> 


t- 




< 




" a a * 


fH 








'm 


a 


o 


X 


,9 




S 


») nt 3 


CI 








rt 


aw 


Uh 


s 




i— i 


O 


St:**! 

2 s 




(0 

s 





a 
&? 


w 











o 


P< 


II 


W t^u 


rt 


rt 


i-i 

3 

3 
U 

Z 














W 

C 5 

r" o 


II 


II 
>-. 

& ' 

Ph~ 


T 







BJ 

T 


< 














T 
























pui 








CO 


3 






















CO 


^* 


oT 






















£ 


B 


o 






















o 

»— ( 


5 


2-s • 






















H 
« 


ft 

CO 
ft 
O 

O 
g 

5 

M 

Ph 

>— < 


ft °> 

£ taOB 


















8 




H 

O 


<u 3 m 


H 








.2 

> 

PQ 
o 








.§ a 

a c3> 
(q ft 




£ 
5 


s 


h o un 










a 

ii 

tn 

'3 

o 

>-? 








«J3 a 




H 

CO 

(A 


CM 


*3°§2 


•I - 








V 


3 

s 

3^, 


N 




> 


W 

w 

n 

< 




ii 














03 'C 

3 


* ° M 

g to 

II 


X 
w 




a 
— a 

< 


















'So'gS 
o u c N 

3 gf . 

Q 3^ 


5 
o 


H 






















« 





(317) 



> 

X 

I— < 

Q 

Oh 






w 

O 

M 

H 

<! 
i— i 

CO 
CO 



^H 
OZ 
HW 

offi 

co<> 

oW 
OH 
PE 
coo 

H 
CD 

H 

W 

CO 

W 
W 






H 
<! 

rt SO 5 
OR 

w v 

fn 00 
*^ 

H 

W 



W 

-j. On 

.So ? 

jg li ts 

to«~ 

.5> 
> o 
bM 
O-fl 

to is 
rt O 

&C/2 



MO 



-S3 
> 
o 

Oj > vN 



.Wmo 
pa 

< 3- 

N [^ 



■a ° 53 & 

cd , 

J3 

a 



<TJ 



- t^ 41 _T tH 

^-' m tS o 

|rg-s 



O H 

M co 

2 s 



OJ 



1-4— 

03 O 



a 



HON 

«S H . 



< 1) 




^ ti 




«*s.sS 




o.2|g 






wfl na 




g as o 




oco«S> 


M O 


_tn oo 






Ph^ 



.a r 

i o Q_ 






a C 



(318) 



w 

X 
Q 
< 





fc 






O 






i— i 






CO 






co 






W 






u 






o 






p 






CO 






fc 

< 


< 

CO 

W 


l-H 


s 


Pd 


1—1 


H 


H 


KH 


CO 


E 


> 




< 


X 




2 


t— ( 


H 


< 


Q 


O 


s 


£ 


CO 


o 


W 




z 


Hh 


n 

Q 


Pk 


s 


<J 


< 


►4 










w 






w 






H 













£ 






t— 1 






H 






£ 






H 






CO 






n 






m 






P-, 






w 






Pi 






H 






a 






cq 






<3 






H 






g > 






.1 

5 



II C ^- 3 r- L 


11-" o ca 5 m 


1- o O " 


.2 O 


S 


-*< . 


*-< S^i >.u • 


S = fl 0~^ 


8^5 a S.^ 


^2£wS 

fe oO o 
II 


1! 

< 


to 


w 


tf^. 


W o 


K ? 


"* C" 


S -3 


< 


s 




« few's *^ 


J^h « 9 ki 


a-c „, « tc vo 


^ ^3^^ 4 


o £ w* o " 


!-*a e'n •- " 


aj.tij o — 


•r n 3 betj >i 


rt T3< a 5 g 


SaIBw° 



s- 


»c 


« a 




C< 


CO 
















£*° 


<u 


OJ " 

to -a 


5 co 


•s^ 


<~ !~ 


a-a 



-u - u 

^ t-4 a 

<| o 

T-r.g 
I II M 

co :— 

8 3 too 

ca.s H B 
co <u m 
CO || i> P. 



«_- 

= « o co 



w W, h 

d «j u 

<^£ 
co r>a 



O rt IT 

w>« ^ 

- v. , 

.*S o « 

.§8 

coW 



£ 5^c«; 7a 

3 Q3 "2 5) « o 

« o*e t, m ji 

w w 

-u- "5" 

a a ° v m to 
llS'fS-a 5 



«q co o a « 



.2° Sff 

-g-w O I 



co'3 «j5 

>jfl3g 



iW ^ 



S O — 'O 
— 2 C co •< 

S u i. co 

V. >« a 

Joug 

fcoo3 



flgo, 

-g »° 

WW 

M 



K cjio 

wat 



(319) 



MACMILLAJSTS LATEST TEXTS ON HISTORY 

EUROPEAN HISTORY 

AN OUTLINE OF ITS DEVELOPMENT 
By GEORGE BURTON ADAMS 

Professor of History in Yale University 



8vo Half Leather Price $L40 net 

THIRTEEN MAPS AND ONE HUNDRED AND TWENTY-FIVE ILLUSTRATIONS 



The book can be used, by following the text and the topics 
alone, for a one-year's course of study ; and by using the refer- 
ences for additional study it is adapted to carry out the recom- 
mendation of the Committee of Seven of the American Historical 
Association, which was a two-years' course in European History, 
the dividing point to be at the reign of Charlemagne. 

COMMENTS 
Prof. CARL EVANS BOYD, Cornell College, ML Vernon, la. 

" The work represents the latest development in methods of historical in- 
struction. In institutions whose library facilities will permit of its use, it 
cannot fail to become an ideal text-book." 

Prof. U. G. WEATHERLY, Indiana U?iiversity, Bloomington, Ind. 

" Those who know Prof. Adams' admirable Growth of the French Nation 
will find here the same lucidity and correctness of grasp. It is becoming 
more and more difficult to write a satisfactory general history, but I believe 
that Professor Adams has constructed the best one that is now in existence 
within the same scope. The references, maps and topics make it possible 
to use this work as a basis for the intensive study of periods, — a thing that 
can hardly be said of other general histories." 



MACMILLAN'S LATEST TEXTS ON HISTORY 

"Decidedly the best one-volume American history yet 
published." — American Historical Review. 

STUDENTS' HISTORY 



OF THE 



UNITED STATES 

By EDWARD CHANNING 

Professor of History in Harvard University 

WITH SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 
By ANNA BOYNTON THOMPSON 

Thayer Academy, South Braintree, Mass. 



8vo Half Leather Price $1.40 net 



This work is intended for use in classes in high schools an 
academies where, the facts and dates of American Histor 
having been learned in the more elementary grades, it is wished t 
give the student a thorough knowledge of the Constitutional, th 
Political, and the Industrial Development of the United State 
especially the period since the beginning of the movement whic 
led to the separation from the British Empire and the formation < 
a Republican Government under the constitution. 

MISS SUSAN OSGOOD, High School, Binghamton, N. Y. 

" I have examined it with care, and let me assure you, with ever-increasii 
delight. It seems to me by far the strongest and in every way the best wo 
of its kind that has yet appeared, and is exactly suited to our needs." 



MCMILLAN'S LATEST TEXTS ON HISTORY 

HISTORY OF GREECE 

FOR HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES 
By GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD, Ph.D, 

Instructor in the History of Greece and Rome in Harvard University 

8vo Half Leather Price $U0 net 

IN FULL-PAGE MAPS. NINE MAPS IN THE TEXT. ELEVEN FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS 
FIFTY-EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT 



COMMENTS 



VIILY F. PAINE, Miss Spence's School, New York City. 

" There are many valuable books for the teacher, but few text-books for the stu - 
dent that are at once interesting and accurate. Yours is more. It is the choicest 
selection of facts from the best sources, so presented that the student may taste 
the sources. That is where your book especially meets a great end. The marginal 
references are wonderfully helpful. The illustrations could not be better. I am 
using the book in my class preparing for college, and am interested to see how 
thoroughly it is appreciated." 

M. BARRETT, High School, Denver, High School No. i. 

" Dr. Botsford has written a history of Greece which is remarkable chiefly for what 
it gives of the spirit of Greek life and character. By no means a mere catalog of 
events, it concerns itself mainly with giving the facts great and small in Greek 
life which serve to show the genius and bent of this remarkable people ; and yet it 
follows faithfully chronological order, omitting only unimportant details of cam- 
paigns and international complications." 

apt. W. W. CHANCELLOR, Bloomfield, N. J. 

" I beg leave to express the delight with which I have read your Botsford's ' His 
tory of Greece.' It is a most readable history of Greece. I like it especially be- 
cause of its competent handling of the economic facts of Greek life. As a social 
interpretation as well as a literary work, this history is unequalled in its field." 

fATSON NICHOLSON, Principal of High School, San Diego, Cal. 

"The extracts from the sources are woven into the text in a delightful manner and 
the style of the whole book is charming. The marginal and reference notes will 
be helpful to wide-awake teachers, as will be the ' library' lists. The cuts are all 
well chosen and attractive, and the maps are exceptionally good. We have been 
holding a class some weeks for the appearance of this new book, and we adopted 
it the instant the first copy reached this coast." 



MACMILLAN'S LATEST TEXTS_ ON HIS TOR ] 

HISTORY OF ENGLAND 

GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH NATION 

FOR HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES 
By KATHARINE COMAN, PhJB. 

Professor of History and Economics, Wellesley College 

AND 

ELIZABETH K. KENDALL, MA. 

Associate Professor of History, Wellesley College 



12mo Cloth Price $1.40 net 



In offering a new History of England for use in preparatory 
schools, the authors have borne in mind the history requirement re- 
cently adopted by several leading colleges and universities. The pro- 
posed full-year course admits of something more than a narrative of 
political events occurring between the Roman conquest and the reign 
of Victoria. The students may hope to get some comprehension of the 
various factors that have worked together to produce modern Britain. 
The physical environment afforded by the British Isles, the race traits 
of the peoples that have occupied the land, the methods by which they 
have wrought out industrial prosperity, the measures by which they 
have attained self-government, all are essential to an adequate under- 
standing of the growth of the English nation. Within the limits im- 
posed by text-book dimensions, we have endeavored to bring out these 
phases of the national life. 

Maps, depicting every important geographical change, are supplied 
with the text. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK: 66 FIFTH AVENUE 

BOSTON CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO 

W 9 3 

i 











» V 






^ 



^ 

















,0^ %. 



' w « A. V 

V %™^V V^V V*^>° 



& 




v^ 










f^ v ^ Deacidified using the Bookkeeper proce 
^4. * i Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 

**^ TreatmentDat9: h '" , "" m 

—vationTechnologi( 

EADER IN PAPER PRESERVATI 

111 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township, PA 16066 




4? 




v 







•» A& ^ " »* 




